THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOLOGY 

UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


^ijt  of  Oil  Companies  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, Alumni  and  Faculty  of  Geology  Depart- 
ment and  University  Library. 

1940 


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*.4z. 


MJ  .    K    S*   7.3 


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op  «      f  o 


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1  - 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

MILITARY    SKETCHING 

AND 

MAP   READING 


BY 
Captain   JOHN    B.   BARNES 

Fifth  U.  S.  Infantry 


THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED 

FIFTEENTH  THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

25   Park  Place 
1917 


THIRD  EDITION,  SECOND  PRINTING 


Copyright,   191 7 

BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND   COMPANY 


Library 


H70  . 


PREFACE 


The  publication  of  this  book  was  under- 
taken with  a  view  of  providing  a  text-book 
suitable  for  beginners  in  the  subject  of  Mili- 
tary Sketching. 

To  the  original  book  has  been  added 
chapters  on  Map  Reading  and  Landscape 
Sketching. 

The  diagrams  in  the  first  seven  chapters 
were  executed  by  Captain  P.  A.  Earned, 
loth  Infantry. 

J.  B.  B. 

^May  I,  1917. 


I 


1 

.i-  734000 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Sketches;  Scales;  Construction  of 

Scales i 

11.     Conventional  Signs;   Abbreviations...  io 

III.  Sketching  Implements 14 

IV.  Orientation;   Resection;    Intersection  23 
V.     Contours;    Map   Distances;    Vertical 

Interval 34 

VI.     Road  Sketching 48 

VII.     Position  Sketching 58 

VIII.     Map  Reading 65 

IX.     Landscape  Sketching 74 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

MILITARY  SKETCHING 


CHAPTER  I 
SCALES 


A  PRACTICAL  knowledge  of  sketching  is  an  important 
part  of  the  military  education  of  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers.  When  maps  of  the  country  are 
not  available,  commanders  try  to  obtain  sketches  as 
guides  in  marching,  and  in  the  selection  of  combat  or 
outpost  positions,  camp  sites,  etc.  Such  sketches  must 
be  made  by  members  of  the  command. 

A  topographical  map  is  a  graphical  representation, 
or  pen  picture,  of  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface.  It 
is  made  with  survey  instruments  and  is  supposed  to  be 
accurate. 

A  sketch  is  a  crude  map,  made  without  accurate 
instruments  for  measuring  distances,  directions,  or  ele- 


2  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

vations,  usually  made  hastily,  and  often  with  little  op- 
portunity for  reconnoitering  the  ground.  Sketches 
are  of  two  general  classes,  viz. :  Road  sketches  and 
Area  sketches.  Area  sketches  are  of  three  kinds: 
(a)  Position,  (b)  Outpost,  (c)  Place  sketches. 

A  RO.\D  sketch  is  one  of  some  particular  route 
passed  over  by  the  sketcher,  showing  the  direction, 
distance,  elevations,  description  of  the  bridges,  fords 
and  all  other  important  topographical  features  on  the 
road  and  for  a  distance  of  three  or  four  hundred 
yards  on  either  side.     (Fig.  29.) 

A  POSiTiox  sketch  is  one  made  by  a  sketcher  who 
has  access  to  all  parts  of  the  area  sketched.  It  shows 
all  the  topographical  details,  as  in  a  road  sketch,  of 
some  military  position  or  extended  area,  (Plates  A 
and  B,  and  Fig.  31.) 

An  outpost  sketch  is  one  of  the  ground  along  a 
friendly  outpost  line,  and  as  far  towards  the  hostile 
position  as  practicable.  The  sketch  is  necessarily  made 
from  the  rear  or  along  the  line  of  observation.  Points 
are  located  by  intersection,  or  by  traversing,  i.  e.,  pass- 
ing over  the  ground. 

A  place  sketch  is  one  of  an  area,  made  by  a  sketcher 
from  one  point  of  observation,  as  the  proximity  of 
the  enemy  prevents  moving  about.  Distances  are  es- 
timated and  directions  taken  by  sighting  along  the 
ruler  or  pencil. 

To  be  able  to  make  an  acceptable  sketch  (frequently 


SCALES  3 

under  adverse  conditions)  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  a  proficiency  in  execution  that  the 
average  man  acquires  only  by  considerable  practice. 

All  military  sketches  are  made  to  scale ;  that  is,  one 
unit  of  length  on  the  sketch  represents  a  certain  num- 
ber of  like  units  on  the  ground  represented  by  that 
sketch.  For  example,  if  the  scale  of  a  sketch  is  3 
inches  to  one  mile,  any  distance  of  three  inches  on  the 
sketch  represents  a  corresponding  ground  distance  of 
one  mile,  and  one  inch  on  the  sketch  would  represent 
one-third  of  a  mile  on  the  ground,  etc.  When  the 
sketch  is  completed  the  scale  to  which  it  is  drawn 
should  be  indicated  on  it.  It  may  be  expressed  in  one 
of  three  ways: 

(a)  In  zvords  and  figures,  as,  3  inches=i  mile; 
meaning  that  3  inches  on  the  sketch  or  map  represent 
I  mile  on  the  ground. 

{h)  By  what  is  known  as  ''representative 
fraction''  (abbreviated  R.F.) — a  fraction,  the 
number  above  the  line  showing  units  of  length  on  the 
map,  while  the  number  below  the  line  shows  the  cor- 
responding distance  on  the  ground  represented  by  the 
map,  thus : 

R.F.    ■ means  that   I   inch,   or   i   unit  of   anv 

21120 

measure  on  the  map,  represents  a  distance  of  21 120 

inches,  or  units  of  that  measure,  on  the  ground.    If  the 

scale  of  a  map  were  4  inches  to  the  mile,  then  4  inches 


4  ELEMENTS  OF  MILITARY   SKETCHING 

would  represent  63360  inches  ( f  mile)  on  the  ground, 
or, 

P  4  (map  distance) 

'63360    (ground  distance)  * 

as  the  R.F.  is  usually  written  with  the  numerator  unity, 
we  w^ould  have: 

R.F. 


63360       ■    *  15840' 

(r)  The  scale  may  be  represented  graphically.  A 
graphical  scale  is  a  Hne  of  any  length  drawn  on  a  map 
or  sketch  and  divided  into  parts,  each  part  being 
marked,  not  with  its  actual  map  length,  but  with  the 
ground  distance  which  it  represents.  For  example, 
instead  of  writing  3  inches=i  mile,  we  may  draw  a 
line  3  inches  long  on  the  map  and  mark  it  i  mile. 
Subdivisions  of  this  line  represent  shorter  distances 
and  are  marked  with  their  respective  values. 

The  scales  on  American  (military)  maps  and 
sketches  are : 

I   inch    (approximately)    to  the  mile,  or   R.F.  - — — 
(Geographical  Survey  IMaps). 

3  inches  to  the  mile,  or  R.F. 

(Scale  used  for  road  sketches). 


SCALES 


6  inches  to  the  mile,  or  R.F. 


10560 
(Scale  generally  used  for  area  sketches). 

I 


12  inches  to  the  mile,  R.F. 


5280 


(Scale  used  for  fortification  plans,  war  game  maps, 

etc.). 

Less  frequently  used  are  the  scales  of  2  inches  to 
the  mile: 

(R.F.  — ^  ),  and  4  inches  to  the  mile  [R.F.  — - — 
\         31680/'  ^  \  15840 

The  scale  reading  yards,  meters,  miles,  etc.,  usually 
found  on  a  completed  map  is  called  "reading  scale." 
In  making  a  sketch,  however,  a  ''working  scale"  is  used. 

The  distances  on  the  ground  may  be  measured  by 
pacing,  taking  the  time  of  a  horse's  trot  or  walk,  count- 
ing telephone  poles,  and  multiplying  by  their  interval, 
counting  the  revolutions  of  a  wheel,  by  speedometer, 
estimation,  etc.  In  any  case  it  will  be  necessary  to 
have  a  ''working  scale" — that  is,  a  scale  of  units  of 
length  used  in  measuring  the  ground  distances. 

The  units  of  length  of  any  reading  scale  are  of  a 
fixed  and  standard  value  such  as  yards,  meters,  miles, 
etc.,  while  the  value  of  the  units  of  any  working  scale 
depends  on  the  means  used  for  measuring  the  distances. 


6  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

The  working  scale  does  not  appear  on  the  completed 
sketch. 

Our  regulations  prescribe  that  road  sketches  be  made 
to  a  scale  of  3  inches  to  the  mile,  (contour  intervals 
20  feet),  and  area  sketches  6  inches  to  the  mile, 
(contour  interval  10  feet).  These  two  scales  are  the 
only  ones  you  will  probably  ever  use. 

The  usual  means  of  measuring  ground  distances  is 
by  pacing,  or,  when  mounted,  taking  the  time  of  a 
horse's  trot  or  walk.  You  can  determine  the  length  of 
your  pace  in  inches  by  stepping  over  a  known  distance 
two  or  three  times,  using  your  normal  pace.  To  give 
the  most  accurate  results,  the  course  should  be  several 
hundred  yards  in  length  and  over  undulating  ground. 
The  average  man  steps  from  30  to  36  inches.  The 
average  horse  covers  a  mile  in  8  minutes  at  a  trot  and 
in  16  minutes  at  a  walk.  In  "gaiting"  a  horse  a  course 
of  at  least  a  mile  should  be  gone  over  several  times  at  a 
trot,  and  at  a  walk.  In  making  a  scale  for  pacing  use 
a  stride  (a  double  step)  as  the  unit  of  measure,  count- 
ing each  time  your  left  (right)  foot  strikes  the  ground. 

Assume  that  it  is  desired  to  make  a  road  sketch,  scale 
3  inches  to  the  mile,  distance  to  be  measured  by  pacing. 
You  must  have  a  working  scale  of  your  paces,  or 
strides.  You  find  that  your  stride  is  60  inches.  You 
will  take  an  average  of  1056  strides  in  covering  a  mile 
(63360  inches  divided  by  60).  You  might  draw  a 
line  3  inches  long  and  divide  it  into  1056  equal  parts, 


SCALES  7 

each  part  representing  one  stride,  but  as  such  number 
of  divisions  is  not  practicable  to  make  or  work  with, 
a  smaller  number  of  divisions  each  representing  a 
certain  number  of  strides  should  be  made.  Also,  in- 
stead of  having  a  scale  of  a  length  to  represent  exactly 
1056  strides,  you  will  find  it  more  convenient  to  have 
the  line  represent  1000  or  other  even  number.  Take 
1000  for  example. 

You  can  find  the  exact  length  of  this  scale  by  a 
simple  proportion : 

1056  :  1000  1:3:  x=2.84. 

A  line  2.84  inches  long  equals  1000  of  your  strides. 
In  other  words,  when  you  have  completed  2.84  inches 
of  your  sketch  you  will  have  covered  a  distance  equal 
to  1000  of  your  strides.  Because  in  making  a  sketch 
you  will  have  to  plot  (draw  in)  the  features  at  various 
distances,  you  must  so  divide  your  scale  that  you  can 
plot  from  it  any  desired  number  of  strides,  as  25,  100, 
500,  etc. 

To  actually  construct  the  above  scale,  draw  a  line 
2.84  inches  long,  taking  the  distance  accurately  from 
your  ruler  (A — B  Fig.  i)  and  divide  it  into  a  number 
of  equal  parts ;  5  parts  would  be  a  convenient  number 
in  this  case,  each  part  representing  200  strides.  To 
accurately  make  this  division,  draw  the  line  A — C  an 
indefinite  length  and  from  your  ruler  lay  off  5  spaces 
of  an  equal  and  convenient  length  on  it,  beginning  at 


8 


ELEMENTS  OF  MILITARY  SKETCHING 


A.  Now  draw  a  line  from  the  5th  division  on  A — C 
to  B.  Draw  lines  parallel  to  this  line  through  the  other 
4  points  on  A — C,  cutting  A — B.  A — B  is  now  divided 
into  200  stride  lengths.    As  smaller  divisions  should  be 


B 


/^C 


Fig.  I. 


made,  by  the  same  method  divide  the  first  division  on 
A — B  to  read  25  strides.  Now  erase  all  the  lines  except 
A — B,  mark  the  subdivisions  with  their  respective 
values  as  in  Fig.  2  and  you  have  the  completed  work- 


00 


200 


400 


600 


800 


Fig.  2. 

ing  scale  by  which  you  may  plot  from  25  to  1000 
strides.  Distances  smaller  than  25  strides  take  from 
your  scale  by  estimation.  A  scale  is  more  convenient 
to  work  with  if  constructed  to  read  even  hundreds, 
or  divisors  of  one  hundred  of  the  unit  of  measure. 


SCALES  9 

By  actual  trials  over  a  measured  course  a  horse  is 
found  to  trot  a  mile  in  an  average  of  7  mins.  40  sees. 
Then  7%  minutes  equals  i  mile,  or  1760  yards.  Select 
10  minutes  as  a  convenient  value  for  your  scale ; 

7^  :  3  :  10:  x=3.9=io  mins. 

Using  the  method  described  above  construct  a  working 
scale  3.9  inches  long  to  read  minutes  of  trotting  and 
subdivide  the  first  division  to  read  10  or  15  seconds. 

In  figures  2B,  2C  and  2D  scales  are  accurately  con- 
structed for  sketches  3  inches  to  the  mile  for  pacing, 
and  by  taking  the  time  of  a  horse's  walk  or  trot.  The 
one  desired  can  be  taken  off  on  a  piece  of  cardboard 
and  thus  save  actual  construction.  If  a  scale  of  strides 
is  desired,  divide  the  number  showing  the  total  length 
in  paces  by  2,  changing  the  intermediate  values  4,  8,  12, 
16,  etc.,  to  read  2,  4,  6,  8,  respectively.  To  use  these 
scales  in  making  a  sketch  6  inches  to  the  mile,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  subdivisions  will  have  just 
half  their  original  numerical  value. 


CHAPTER  II 
CONVENTIONAL  SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS 

A  MILITARY  sketch  to  be  of  value,  must  not  only  be 
reasonably  accurate  as  to  distances  and  directions,  but 
must  also  show  the  condition  of  the  ground  as  to  cul- 
tivation, natural  features,  and  all  other  features  of  pos- 
sible military  importance,  as  railroads,  telegraph  lines, 
bridges,  streams,  habitations,  etc. ;  also  the  form  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  itself.  In  order  to  represent  the 
different  conditions  it  has  been  necessary  to  adopt 
standard  graphic  signs,  called  CONVENTIONAL 
SIGNS.  The  conventional  signs  given  in  Figs.  3  and 
10  wiU  answer  all  requirements  for  field  maps  and 
sketches. 

In  addition  to  the  conventional  signs,  the  following 
abbreviations  are  authorized  by  our  Field  Service 
Regulations  for  use  on  field  maps  and  sketches.  When 
words  are  used  they  must  be  written  in  full,  or  abbre- 
viated as  shown.  These  abbreviations  must  not  be 
used  for  other  words  than  those  shown  in  the  table. 
Words  not  in  the  table  are  not  as  a  rule  abbreviated. 

A.         Arroyo.  Ar.        Arch, 

abut.     Abutment.        ^        b.  Brick. 

10 


SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS 


II 


B.S. 

Blacksmith  Shop. 

Long. 

Longitude. 

bot. 

Bottom. 

Mt. 

Mountain. 

Br. 

Branch. 

Mts. 

Mountains. 

br. 

Bridge. 

N. 

North. 

C. 

Cape. 

n.f. 

Not  fordable. 

cem. 

Cemetery. 

P. 

Pier. 

con. 

Concrete. 

pk. 

Plank. 

cov. 

Covered. 

P.O. 

Post  Office. 

Cr. 

Creek. 

Pt. 

Point. 

d. 

Deep. 

q.p. 

Queen-post 

cul. 

Culvert. 

R. 

River. 

D.S. 

Drug  Store. 

R.H. 

Roundhouse. 

E. 

East. 

R.R. 

Railroad. 

Est. 

Estuary. 

S. 

South. 

f. . 

Fordable. 

s. 

Steel. 

Ft. 

Fort. 

S.H. 

Schoolhouse. 

G.S. 

General  Store. 

S.M. 

Sawmill. 

gir. 

Girder. 

Sta. 

Station. 

G.M. 

Gristmill. 

St. 

Stone. 

i. 

Iron. 

str. 

Stream. 

I. 

Island. 

T.G. 

Tollgate. 

Tc. 

Junction. 

Tres. 

Trestle. 

k.p. 

King-post. 

tr. 

Truss. 

L. 

Lake. 

W.T. 

Water  tank. 

Lat. 

Latitude. 

W.W. 

Water  Works. 

Ldg. 

Landing. 

W. 

West. 

L.S.S 

.  Life-saving  Station. w. 

Wood. 

L.H. 

Lighthouse. 

wd. 

Wide. 

12 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


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SIGNS   AND  ABBREVIATIONS  13 


ih 


Indicate  character  and  span  by  abbreviations. 
Example: 


'H 


40x20 
10 

MeaninI  wooden  kin4po3tbrid§e,40feetlon|.20f6ekwidew 
and  10  feet  above  the  water 


Streams 


Indicate  character  by  abbreviations. 
Example:'"^*^-'<<W>2V^^ 

Meanin|astream  15  feet  wide.8  feet  deep,  and  not  fbrdaWe. 
House  •  Church*  School  house  «»SlH. 

Vlfoods    {^^)  Orchardsirm  Cultivated UndfCdi] 

if  boundary  lines  are  fences  they  are  indicated  as  such; 
Brush,  crops  or  |pass,  important  as  coveror  torage  B^S^toT^I 
^^^^'^y     I  ^■►''♦'*^*|  Treevsolatod     *.•♦ 

Cutandfill  -  ,   j  ^    ;       cut  lOfeetdeep 

...:  *^   }     raiiofeethiih 

Fig.  10. 


CHAPTER  III 
SOME  SKETCHING  INSTRUMENTS 

The  Cavalry  Sketching  Case  is  a  small  drav/ing- 
boarcl  with  a  compass  set  in.  The  paper  is  tightly 
rolled  over  two  metalic  rollers  on  opposite  ends  of  the 
board.  An  arm  with  a  brass  scale  (3  inches  to  the 
mile)  is  fastened  to  it,  freely  moving  around  a  pivot. 
This  arm  with  the  graduations  on  the  bottom  of  the 
board  is  also  used  for  measuring  slopes  in  the  manner 
described  below,  the  movable  ruler  taking  the  place 
of  the  pendulum.  The  graduations  are  for  slopes  of 
1°  to  20^.  There  is  a  strap  on  the  reverse  side  of  the 
board  for  fastening  it  to  the  wrist. 

A  good  device  for  sketching  is  a  simple  plane-table 
(a  smooth  board  about  16  inches  square  mounted  on  a 
tripod)  with  a  compass  set  in.  Slopes  are  measured 
with  some  form  of  hand  level  or  slope  board.  The 
board  is  oriented  by  means  of  a  compass  or  by  ''back- 
sighting."    The  paper  is  held  in  place  by  thumb  tacks. 

(Fig.  4.) 

A  modification  of  this  device,  always  available,  is  a 
smooth  board  or  piece  of  stifif  cardboard  about  i2''xT4'' 
and  a  loose  box  compass.    A  ruler,  paper,  thumb  tacks, 

14 


SOME   SKETCHING  INSTRUMENTS 


15 


pencils,  scales,  soft  rubber  eraser  and  a  pocketknife 
complete  the  equipment.  Under  service  conditions, 
hasty  sketching  will  usually  be  done  with  such  impro- 
vised plane  table.  Any  paper  that  will  stand  erasing  is 
suitable.  Tracing  paper  is  the  best.  2H  to  4H  pencils 
are  generally  used,  except  with  tracing  paper  when  B 


Fig.  4. 


or  HB  pencils  are  preferable.  When  sketching  by  pac- 
ing, a  pace  tally  for  registering  paces  or  strides  is  con- 
venient. When  sketching  mounted  a  stop  watch  should 
be  used.  The  board  may  be  mounted  on  a  tripod  or 
not  as  desired. 

A  slope  board  is  a  simple  device  for  measuring  de- 
grees of  slope.  It  is  constructed  as  follows  (Figs.  5 
and  6)  :     Suspend  a  small  weight  on  a  string,  thus 


i6 


ELEMENTS  OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


forming  a  crude  plumb-line  and  bob.  Attach  the  free 
end  of  the  string  to  the  middle  point  of  one  edge  of 
a  rectangular  board  (the  drawing  board).  If  this  edge 
of  the  board  is  kept  uppermost  and  level  the  plumb- 
line,  or  pendulum,  will  hang  perpendicularly  bisecting 
the  board.     Mark  a  point,  (O),  on  this  bisecting  line 


near  the  bottom.  If  the  level  of  the  upper  edge  of  the 
board  is  disturbed  by  sighting  the  pendulum  will 
appear  to  move  forward  or  back  of  O.  This  apparent 
course  of  the  pendulum  (Fig.  6)  is  a  sector  that  can 
be  divided  into  degrees.  In  the  diagrams,  from  C  to 
line  A — B  is  assumed  to  be  5.7  inches,  and  the  divi- 
sions on  A — B  are  i-io  of  an  inch  apart.    Each  divi- 


SOME  SKETCHING  INSTRUMENTS 


17 


sion  on  a  slope  board  so  constructed  reads  an  angle 
of  1°. 

To  use,  sight  at  the  object  along  the  edge  (top)  of 
the  board  at  an  elevation  on  the  object  of  about  5  feet 
(height  of  your  eye)  and  read  the  degrees  registered 


Q 


Fig.  6. 


by  the  pendulum  (Figs.  7  and  8).  Forward  is  a  minus 
and  backward  is  a  plus  elevation.  It  is  usually  more 
convenient  to  use  both  hands  in  sighting  and  to  hold 
the  plumb-line  in  place  against  the  board  with  the  left 
thumb  when  it  is  turned  to  be  read.  The  slope  board 
is  constructed  on  the  under  side  of  the  drawing  board. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  accurate  results  with  a  slope  board 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


SOME   SKETCHING   INSTRUMENTS 


19 


in  windy  weather.    The  Service  Clinometer  is  a  simple 
and  handy  angle  measuring  instrument,  and  should  be 
used  when  available. 
A  6-inch  triangular  ruler  makes  a  good  straightedge 


Fig.  8. 

for  sighting  or  for  drawing  lines.     The  scales  may  be 
pasted  on  it. 

Box  Compass  (Fig.  9). — A  simple  box,  or  needle 
compass  is  preferable  for  the  beginner.  The  gradua- 
tions may  be  clockwise  from  0°  to  360°,  contra-clock- 
wise 360°  to  0°,  in  quadrants  or  half  circles.  A  com- 
pass graduated  contra-clockwise   (i.e.,  in  the  reverse 


20         ELEMENTS  OF  MILITARY  SKETCHING 


Fig.  9. 


SOME  SKETCHING  INSTRUMENTS 


21 


order  of  the  graduations  on  the  face  of  a  clock)  is  the 
better  as  it  reduces  chances  of  error  in  reading.  At- 
tention is  invited  to  the  arrangements  of  the  cardinal 
points  on  the  dial  of  the  box  compass  (Fig.  9).  Note 
that  E  is  to  the  left  of  N.    This  reversion  of  E  and  W 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  12. 


has  been  purposely  made  to  facilitate  the  reading. 
As  for  example,  assume  the  first  course  of  a  road  to 
be  magnetic  north.  In  this  case  the  position  of  the 
compass  needle  when  taking  the  bearing  will  be  as  in 
Fig.  II.  The  road  later  turns  NW  (Fig.  i^).  At 
this  point  sight  In  the  new  direction  along  the  sighting 


22  ELE.MENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


line  on  the  compass-box  lid.  The  needle  will  leave  j 
N  and  move  toward  W  (on  the  dial).  Take  the  read-  \ 
ing  from  N  to  the  needle — so  many  degrees  XW.  -' 
The  index  or  north  end  of  the  needle  has  remained  \ 
fixed,  while  the  sighting  line  of  the  compass  has  moved 
towards  the  west  (the  new  direction)  and  W  on  the  i 
compass  face  has  approached  the  needle.  If  a  rever-  \ 
sion  of  the  cardinal  points  E  and  W  had  not  been  ] 
made,  the  reading  would  obviously  be  more  difficult, 
and  it  is  very  probable  that  the  sketcher,  while  working 
rapidly,  would  have  read  so  many  degrees  NE  if  this 
reversion  were  not  clearly  shown  by  lettering. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ORIENTATION— RESECTION— INTERSECTION 

Orientation  is  placing  a  map  in  its  true  relation 
to  the  ground  it  represents,  so  that  if  it  were  possible 
to  compress  this  ground  to  the  size  of  the  map,  each 
point  on  the  map  might  be  placed  directly  over  the 
corresponding  point  on  the  ground.  It  is,  in  practice, 
bringing  the  direction  line  on  the  map  to  point  north 
and  south. 

As  a  rule  maps  have  their  true  north  (and  south) 
indicated  by  -a  line  which  is  called  the  True  Meridian. 
Sketches  also  have  a  direction  or  meridian  line,  located 
by  means  of  the  compass.  It  is  called  the  mag- 
netic meridian.  These  lines  will  not  usually  coin- 
cide as  there  are  few  localities  where  the  compass 
needle  points  true  North.  It  points  toward  the  mag- 
netic North,  which  is  usually  several  degress  East  of 
West  of  true  North,  depending  on  the  locality  and 
the  time.  This  deviation  of  the  needle  is  called  mag- 
netic variation  or  declination.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  from  o°  to  25°. 

Consequently  there  may  be  two  direction-lines  on 
a  map,  the  ''true"  north  and   the   "magnetic"  north 

23 


24 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


(Fig.   13).     In  the  figure  the  dedination  is   14°   30' 
East. 

The  true  meridian  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  North 


Pole.  Its  location  never  changes,  but  the  magnetic 
meridian  as  indicated  by  the  compass  needle,  is  vari- 
able because  of  magnetic  influences.     The  magnetic 


ORIENTATION  25 

meridian  is  usually  represented  by  a  spear,  one  side 
of  the  point  or  the  feathers  of  which  is  missing,  while 
the  true  meridian  is  represented  by  a  spear  completed. 

Sketches,  being  made  by  compass,  necessarily  have  a 
magnetic  direction  line,  while  maps  are  usually  made 
by  true  meridian. 

To  orient  a  map  or  sketch  which  has  the  magnetic 
meridian  indicated,  it  is  only  necessary  to  bring  the 
magnetic  north  of  the  map  to  point  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  north  end  of  the  compass  needle. 

When  one  has  only  the  true  meridian  indicated, 
to  orient  by  the  compass,  construct  a  magnetic  meridian 
if  the  declination  be  known. 

To  do  this,  place  the  meridian  of  the  map  directly 
under  the  needle  of  the  compass  while  it  is  pointing 
to  zero ;  then  keeping  the  map  fixed,  rotate  the  compass 
in  the  direction  of  the  inclination  of  the  needle,  until 
the  needle  has  passed  over  degrees  on  the  compass-ring 
equal  to  the  amount  of  the  declination.  Now  draw 
a  line  in  continuation  of  the  N-S  line  of  your  compass. 
This  line  will  be  the  magnetic  meridian. 

In  Fig.  16,  a  road  A — B  is  plotted  on  the  map ;  the 
magnetic  N  and  S  line  is  indicated.  You  are  standing 
on  the  road  and  desire  to  orient  the  map.  Lay  the 
compass  on  the  map  so  that  the  N-S  line  on  the  dial 
is  parallel  to  the  N-S  on  the  map.  Turn  the  map 
(without  disturbing  the  position  of  the  compass  on  it) 
until  the  north  end  of  the  needle  points  towards  N 


26         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 


ORIENTATION 


27 


on  the  compass  face.  The  map  is  now  oriented,  and 
A — B  has  the  same  direction  as  the  road  on  the  ground. 
When  there  is  no  meridian  hne  on  the  map  (or 
when  you  have  no  compass  or  other  means  of  orient- 
ing by  using  a  meridian  Hne),  if  you  can  locate  on  the 


(5Un)<- 


Fig.  14. 


map  your  position  and  some  other  point  that  you  can 
identify  on  the  ground,  draw  a  Hne  connecting  these 
two  points  on  the  map.  Now  hold  the  map  so  that 
this  line  points  from  you  towards  the  object,  and  your 
map  is  oriented.  Or,  if  two  points  visible  on  the 
ground   can  be  identified  on  the  map,  turn  the  map  so 


28  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

that  a  line  passing  through  them  hes  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  hne  joining  the  points  on  the  ground. 

When  you  have  no  compass  for  orienting  your  map 
or  sketch  you  may  find  the  approximate  true  North 
by  the  fohowing  method,  when  the  sun  is  shining: 
Point  the  hour  hand  of  your  watch  toward  the  sun. 
A  Hne  drawn  from  the  pivotal  center  of  the  dial  mid- 
way between  the  hour  hand  and  XII  will  point  South 
and  a  prolongation  of  this  line  in  the  opposite  direc- 


<S    KO'"'' 


/ 


^, ^/^ 


Fig.  is. 


tion.  To  point  the  hour  hand  in  the  direction  of  the 
sun,  hold  a  straw  perpendicularly  between  the  sun  and 
the  watch  and  bring  the  hour  hand  in  its  shadow 
(Fig.  14). 

At  night  the  approximate  true  north  may  be  de- 
termined by  the  Great  Dipper  (Fig.  15).  The  North 
Star  lies  nearly  in  prolongation  of  a  line  of  the  two 
outer  stars  of  the  bowl  of  the  Dipper. 

Figure  17  illustrates  that  if  the  compass-needle  and 


ORIENTATION 


29 


30         ELEMENTS  OF  MILITARY  SKETCHING 


ORIENTATION 


31 


the  direction  line  on  the  map  do  not  coincide  the  map 
is  not  oriented. 

Resection  is  a  method  of  locating  unknown  points 
by  taking  bearings  of  two  or  more  known  points  (Fig, 
18).  You  think  you  are  on  some  point  of  the  road 
A — B,  and  vou  want  to  locate  your  exact  position  on 


Fig.  19. 


the  map.  Facing  B  there  are  two  distinct  landmarks 
on  the  left, — the  top  of  the  hill  (X)  and  the  cottage 
in  front  of  the  pine-wood,  both  of  which  you  can 
locate  on  your  map  and  identify  on  the  ground.  Keep- 
ing  the  map  oriented,  sight  towards  the  hill  until  the 
point  (X)  on  the  map  and  the  actual  top  of  the  hill 
are  in  the  same  line  of  sight.     Plot  this  line  of  sight 


32        ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 

by  drawing  a  back  line  through  X  across  the  road. 
This  line,  obtained  by  connecting  three  points  (top 
of  hill,  X,  yourself)  would  sufficiently  locate  your 
position  on  the  map  if  you  were  certain  you  were  on 
the  road  A—B. 

In    order   to    definitely    deterniine    this,    a    similar 


X 


r 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


Fig.  20. 


sight  is  taken  on  the  cottage  and  this  line  of  sight 
plotted  in  the  same  manner.  Both  lines  will  cross  at 
a  certain  point.  The  point  of  their  intersection  is  your 
exact  place  on  the  map,  as  you  are  on  the  line  vS — X, 
and  also  on  the  line  6^ — Cottage.  Resection  may  be 
used  to  advantage  as  a  check  on  the  sketcher's 
position. 


ORIENTATION 


33 


Intersection  is  the  same  principle  applied  in 
reverse  order  to  locate  and  plot  points  situated  off 
the  course  of  the  sketcher,  or  to  which  it  is  not  de- 
sired to  traverse  (Figs.  19  and  20).  Suppose  you  are 
on  the  road  B — A  (Fig.  20),  and  desire  to  plot  an 
object  several  hundred  yards  off  the  road.  Stop  at 
any  point  on  the  road  (as  i),  orient  the  sketch,  sight 
on  the  object  and  plot  the  line  of  sight  by  drawing 
an  indefinite  straight  line  from  your  position  towards 
the  object.  After  having  marched  a  certain  distance 
(as  at  2)  a  second  sight  is  taken  and  this  line  of 
sight  is  plotted  in  the  same  manner.  It  will  intersect 
the  first  line.  The  point  of  intersection  locates  the 
object  on  your  paper.  This  method  is  very  accurate 
provided  the  distance  from  i  to  2  is  accurately 
measured  and  plotted.  The  sightings  should  be  taken 
from  such  positions  that  the  angle  at  X  will  be  as 
nearly  90°  as  practicable,  as  the  smaller  this  angle  the 
less  accurate  will  be  the  intersection.  Intersection  is 
used  extensively  in  position  and  outpost  sketching.  In 
road  sketching  It  Is  principally  used  to  locate  points, 
such  as  hills  or  Important  landmarks,  distant  from  the 
course  of  the  sketcher. 


CHAPTER  V 
CONTOURS   AND   CONTOURING 

A  MAP  or  sketch  showing  an  area  only  without 
showing  the  configuration  of  the  ground  and  the  rela- 
tive elevations  of  all  points  (although  it  accurately  rep- 
resents all  other  natural  and  artificial  features)  would 
generally  have  little  military  value.  The  shape  of  the 
surface  is  shown  on  a  map  by  means  of  lines  called 
contours,  which  are  lines  cut  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  by  imaginary  horizontal  planes  at  equal  vertical 
distance  from  each  other  (Fig.  22)  ;  i.e.,  lines  of 
equal  elevation.  In  other  words,  any  point  on  any 
given  contour  has  the  same  elevation  above  datum 
plane  (usually  taken  at  sea  level)  as  all  other  points 
on  that  contour.  On  the  ground  contours  are,  of 
course,  imaginary. 

Horizontal  distances  (ground  distances)  are  meas- 
ured on  a  map  by  means  of  map  scales,  while  the 
scale  for  contours  is  one  for  measuring  vertical  dis- 
tances betv\'een  adjacent  contour  planes. 

A  simple  demonstration  of  the  theory  of  contouring 
is  the  following:  Of  a  soft  material  (clay  or  wet 
sand)  form  a  small  irregular  figure,  giving  It  the  shape 

34 


CONTOURS  AND   CONTOURING 


35 


of  a  hill.  (Fig.  21.)  Pass  several  horizontal  planes 
(pasteboard)  through  this  figure,  carefully  preserving 
an  equal  vertical  interval  between  the  planes.  (Fig. 
22.)  Where  a  plane  passes  through  the  figure,  by 
drawing  its  shape  with  a  pencil,  an  exact  outline  of 
the  form  of  the  ground  at  this  particular  level  will 
be  obtained.     (Fig.  23.)    Cut  each  pasteboard  along  the 


Fig.  21. 


pencil  marks  and  file,  as  in  Fig.  24.  Press  the  paste- 
board to  the  bottom  of  the  staff,  and  you  have  the 
way  this  hill  would  be  represented  on  a  map.     (Fig. 

25-) 

The  picture  of  the  same  hill  (Fig.  26)  is  shown  as 
it  would  appear  on  a  map  by  Fig.  26A.  The  horizontal 
distance  between  contours,  as  from  A  to  B  (Fig.  26A), 
is  called  Map  Distance  (abbreviated  M.  D.)  when  thus 


36         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


CONTOURS  AND  CONTOURING 


37 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


38 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


plotted  to  scale  on  a  map.  ^I.D.  is,  therefore,  the 
plotted  horizontal  or  level  distance  between  adjacent 
contour  lines.  (Alap  Distance  is  always  measured 
perpendicularly  to  the  contour  at  that  particular  point.) 
Vertical  Interval  (abbreviated  V.I.)  is  the  vertical 
distance,   or   difference   in  elevation   of   the   adjacent 


Fig.  2.V 


contour  planes  a,a,a  (Fig.  26.  See  also  Figs.  22  and 
24).  Assuming  that  this  V.I.  is  20  feet,  the  differences 
in  elevation  of  A,  B,  C,  D,  (Fig.  26),  is  then  20 
feet.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  M.D.  between 
A  and  E  (Figs.  26  and  26A)  is  greater  than  the  total 
M.D.  between  F  and  E,  though  the  elevation  oi  E 
ftop  of  the  hill)  is  of  course  the  same  in  both  cases; 
also  that  F — E  is  steeper  ground,  and  that  the  contours 


CONTOURS  AND  CONTOURING 


39 


Fig.  26A. 


40        ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


Fig.  34. 


CONTOURS  AND  CONTOURING       41 

between  F  and  E  on  the  map  are  closer  together  than 
the  contours  between  A  and  E.  In  other  words,  the 
steeper  the  ground  the  closer  will  be  the  contour  lines, 
and  the  reverse  (see  Fig.  34i^).  The  following  ad- 
ditional points  will  assist  you  in  accurately  representing 
ground  forms  by  contouring : 

(a)  All  points  on  any  contour  have  the  same  eleva- 
tion above  datum   (Fig.  22). 

(Z?)   In  a  uniform  slope  contours  are  equally  spaced. 

{c)  Contours  of  different  elevations  do  not  cross 
or  run  into  each  other,  except  in  case  of  an  over- 
hanging or  vertical  cliff. 

{d)  Every  contour  closes  on  itself  or  runs  off  the 
paper. 

(e)  The  manner  of  showing  a  hill  top  is  by  the 
small  closed  contours  in  Figs.  34^  and  B. 

if)  The  manner  of  showing  a  saddle  (or  col)  is 
indicated  in  Fig.  34^. 

(g)  The  manner  of  showing  watersheds  is  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  34.-^,  B  and  C. 

(h)   Water  courses  are  shown  as  in  Fig.  34Z). 

It  will  be  seen  that  watersheds  are  convex,  the 
higher  contours  bulging  out  toward  the  lower  ones,  and 
that  in  water  courses  the  contours  are  convex  towards 
the  source  of  the  stream,  the  lower  contours  bending 
sharply  towards   the  higher  ones. 

M.D.  {map  distance)  depends  on  the  slope  of  the 
ground  represented.     It  can  be  calculated  for  various 


42  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

degrees  of  slope  and  a  scale  of  M.D.  constructed  by 
which  the  distance  between  contour  lines  on  the  map 
for  any  degree  of  slope  is  shown.  This  scale  is  based 
on  the  fact  that  in  a  slope  of  i  degree  there  is  a  rise 
of  I  foot  in  57.3  feet  of  horizontal  distance.  This  ratio 
holds  good  for  any  degree  of  slope.  It  is  not  abso- 
lutely correct,  but  sufficiently  so  for  use  in  military 
sketches.  On  a  i  degree  slope  we  would  then  get  an 
elevation  of  20  feet  in  1 146  feet  of  horizontal  distance 
(20X57-3)  J  and  on  a  5  degree  slope  a  rise  of  20 
feet  would  occur  in  229  feet  horizontal  distance. 

^^  (20X57-3) 


The  M.D.  of  any  degree  of  slope  can  readily  be 
found  by  the  following  equation:  (V.I.X57-3)  divided 
by  the  degree  of  the  slope=the  ground  distance  in  feet 
between  contours. 

As  seen  above  on  a  1°  slope  there  is  a  rise  of  20 
feet  in  a  horizontal  distance  of  1146  ft.  This  distance 
equals  .65  of  i  inch  on  the  map  if  1146  is  plotted  to  a 
scale  of  3  inches  to  the  mile :  then  a  slope  of 

i°  =  .65  inch 
2^  =  .32 

3°  =  . 22  " 

4°=.t6  " 


CONTOURS  AND  CONTOURING  43 

5'^  =  . 12    inch 

6°==. II       " 

7°  =.09    ^   '' 

8°  =.08  inch,  etc.,  when  plotted  to  this  scale, 
(and  just  twice  this  map  distance  when 
plotted  to  a  6-inch  scale). 

Lay  off  these  distances  from  your  ruler  and  you 
have  the  scale  of  M.D.  for  3-inch  map,  V.I.  20  feet. 
(Fig.  27.) 


MAP    DISTANCE-  Vl.  -20' 

Fig.  27. 


The  normal  interval  between  contours  is  as  follows : 
On  a  sketch  of 

3  inches  equals  i  mile,  V.I.  20  feet ; 
6  inches  equals  I  mile,  V.I.   10  feet; 
12  inches  equals   i   mile,  V.I.     5   feet,  or  always 
60  divided  by  the  number  of  inches  to  the  mile. 

In  \  road  or  position  sketching  contours  are  located 
and  plotted  as  are  other  features,  slopes  being  meas- 
ured or  estimated,  and  the  scale  for  M.D.  applied  to 
determine  their  map  distance  apart. 

Suppose  from  your  position  to  some  other  point  to 


44         ELEMExXTS   OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 

be  plotted  on  the  sketch  you  find  a  difference  in 
elevation  of  3^.  After  measuring  (or  estimating)  the 
ground  distance  between  the  points,  and  plotting  it  on 
your  paper,  apply  the  scale  of  M.D.  for  a  3^  slope 
to  this  plotted  distance  as  many  times  as  it  will  go. 
This  gives  the  number  of  contours  between  the  two 
points  (difference  in  elevations),  but  if  the  ground  is 
not  a  sloping  plain  the  correct  spacing  and  shaping 
of  the  contours  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  ground 
must  be  done  by  estimation. 

If  the  elevation  of  your  starting  point  above  datum 
or  sea  level  is  not  known,  any  elevation  for  the  point 
may  be  assumed.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  any 
initial  elevation  should  be  some  hundreds  of  feet  as 
500,  TOGO,  etc.,  etc.,  a  sufficient  elevation  being  taken  to 
assure  having  no  contour  with  a  minus  value  in  case 
the  course  runs  to  much  lower  ground.  In  sketching 
it  must  be  understood  that  the  exact  determination  of 
the  elevation  of  points  above  sea  level  is  not  usuallv 
essential,  but  that  the  great  value  of  contouring  is  in 
showdng  on  the  map  the  relative  elevations  of  such 
points,  and  the  form  and  degree  of  slope  of  the 
ground  itself. 

In  Fig.  8  the  reading  of  the  slope  board  is  plus  4°. 
The  hill  is  then  said  to  have  a  slope  of  4  degrees ;  in- 
tersect, traverse  or  estimate  the  distance  between  the 
point  of  sighting  and  the  top  of  the  hill  (Fig.  7), 
which  is  found  to  be,  say,  500  yards.     Plot  the  posi- 


CONTOURS  AND   CONTOURING 


45 


tion  of  the  hill  top  on  your  sketch  and  apply  the  scale 
of   M.D.   along   the   line   of   sight   to   determine   the 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  28A. 


number  and  approximate  location  of  contours.     If  the 
slope  is  not  uniform,  the  number  of  contours  (height 


46  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

of  hill)  remains  the  same,  of  course,  but  the  exact 
location  of  the  contour  lines  must  be  determined  by 
estimation  as  noted  above.  .  As  the  steepness  of  the 
slope  varies  in  going  from  the  sighting  position  to 
the  top  of  the  hill,  the  AI.D.  between  adjacent  contours 
will  vary  accordingly.     (Fig.  26A  and  34-S.) 

In  Figs.  28  and  28/J  a  road  {A — B)  passes  a  hill. 
The  highest  points  of  the  elevation  {x  and  y)  are 
located  by  intersection  from  the  road.  As  the  road 
is  being  traversed  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  the 
lowest  points  of  the  hill,  that  is,  where  the  slope 
loses  itself  in  the  level  of  the  road,  and  at  C  and  D. 
As  each  of  these  points  is  sighted  on,  measure  the 
slope  to  it  along  that  sighting  line  (disregarding  any 
immediate  irregularities  in  the  steepness)  and  apply  , 
the  slope  card  for  the  determined  degree  of  slope, 
indicating  the  contour  points.  As  soon  as  the  location 
of  each  point  {c,  Y,  X,D)  is  determined  (by  complet- 
ing the  intersection),  plot  contours  of  the  same 
elevation  through  the  indicated  points,  tracing  their 
immediate  course  by  estimation  (Fig.  28^).  Number 
each  contour  as  soon  as  you  have  started  it. 

Contours  are  but  conventional  signs  to  show  ground 
forms.  In  sketching  if  is  not  contemplated  that  they 
be  accurately  located,  or  that  all  ground  be  shown  in 
exact  detail.  Do  not  attempt  to  measure  every  change 
of  slope. 

For  example,  measure  the  angle  of  slope  from  th-? 


CONTOURS  AND  CONTOURING       47 

top  of  a  hill  to  the  valley,  disregarding  intermediate 
irregularities.  After  traversing  and  plotting  the  dis- 
tance, trace  in  the  lowest  contour,  and  then  trace  in 
the  others  between  the  lowest  and  the  top  of  the  hill 
bv  eye. 
If***^  Contours  cross  ^^teaij^i.^  at  right  angles.  Do  not  draw 
them  across  roads.  Stop  at  the  road  and  continue 
them  on  the  other  side. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ROAD  SKETCHING 

To  begin  a  road  sketch,  stand  in  the  middle  of  the 
road  and  hold  the  board  squarely  in  front  of  the  body 
while  facing  ifi  the  general  direction  of  the  route  to 
be  sketched.  The  starting  point  is  marked  (i),  (sta- 
tion i)  (Fig.  29).  With  the  beginner  all  changes  of 
direction  should  be  thus  marked  serially.  With  more 
experience  such  data  would  be  omitted. 

If  a  drawing  board  with  no  compass  set  in  is  being 
used,  lay  a  compass  (preferably  a  box  compass)  on 
the  board  and  gently  turn  until  the  needle  is  over 
the  N  and  S  line  on  the  face  of  the  compass.  The 
needle  being  settled,  draw  a  line  parallel  to,  or  in 
prolongation  of  it.  ]\Iark  the  north  end  N.  This 
line  is  the  N  and  S  line  of  the  sketch  and  zvith  refer- 
ence to  this  line  all  subsequent  directions  are  de- 
termined. 

Keeping  the  needle  parallel  to  the  plotted  north  and 
south  line,  sight  along  the  ruler  in  the  direction  of  the 
road  by  moving  the  ruler  (using  station  (i)  as  a 
pivot),  until  the  ruler  and  the  road  are  in  the  same 
line  of  sight.     Draw  an  indefinite  line  forivard  along 

48 


ROAD   SKETCHING 


49 


3CALE  =  3  IN 


Fig.  29. 


50         ELEMENTS   OF    MILITARY   SKETCHING 

the  ruler  while  holding  it  firmly  in  place  with  the 
other  hand.  Measure  the  slope  toward  (2)  and 
measure  or  estimate  the  slopes  to  the  right  and  left. 
Plot  the  surrounding  details  at  ( i )  including  the  con- 
tours. Step  off  with  the  right  foot  (if  the  distance 
is  being  measured  by  pacing),  counting  a  stride  each 
time  the  left  foot  strikes  the'  ground.  Plot  the  distance 
to  scale.  When  a  change  of  direction  occurs,  stop, 
orient  the  board  and  draw  the  new  direction  line. 
Observe  the  *'lay"  of  the  ground,  measure  the  slopes 
and  draw  in  contours  as  you  go  along. 

It  is  customary  to  take  in  all  the  military  details 
within  300  or  400  yards  of  the  road  traversed,  and 
conspicuous  landmarks,  high  hills,  etc.,  by  intersection 
or  estimation  to  greater  distances,  depending  on  the 
object  of  the  sketch.  Cuts,  fills,  ravines,  woods,  etc., 
should  never  be  overlooked  as  they  may  have  tactical 
value.  In  traversing  it  is  not  necessary  to  stop  and 
plot  each  feature  as  it  is  reached.  Xotes  can  be  made 
of  features  and  distances  and  the  "plotting  in"  done 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  halt  on  account  of  a 
distinct  change  of  direction.  For  example,  from  (i) 
after  getting  the  direction  of  (2)  pace  for  otherwise 
measure)  the  distance  without  halting  to  plot,  having 
made  notes  en  route  of  the  location  of  the  edges  of 
the  woods  to  the  right  and  left,  the  position  of  200 
hill  and  the  place  where  the  road  crosses  low  ground 
w^est   of   it:   at    (2)    lav   off   the   distance    from    (i) 


ROAD   SKETCHING  51 

and  complete  the  sketch  to  that  point.  Then  stand  in 
the  middle  of  the  road  (board  oriented)  and  sight 
toward  (4)  ;  at  (3)  it  will  be  necessary  to  halt  to  get 
the  direction  and  degree  of  slope  of  the  side  road. 
Continue  to  (4),  and  in  laying  off  the  distance,  lay 
off  the  whole  number  of  strides  from  (2).  If,  for 
example,  you  have  360  strides  from  (2)  to  (3)  and 
130  from  (3)  to  (4),  in  plotting  (4)  lay  off  the  whole 
distance  490  strides  from  (2).  This  method  lessens 
the  accumulation  of  errors  because  of  taking  distances 
from  your  scale  less  frequently. 

At  (4)  sight  towards  (6).  Halt  at  the  stream  to  get 
its  direction  and  description  of  the  bridge.  Continue 
in  this  manner.  If  you  are  not  using  a  pace  tally  be 
careful  that  hundreds  of  strides  are  not  gained  or 
lost.  To  guard  against  this  make  a  mark  on  your 
paper  each  time  you  count  a  hundred.  Erase  these 
marks  before  starting  on  again.  During  each  sighting 
be  careful  that  the  board  is  kept  oriented,  i.e.,  in  the 
same  position  relative  to  the  compass  needle  as  when 
starting  out. 

The  hill  320  is  located  by  intersection.  Sight  on 
the  hill  from  station  (6),  plotting  the  line  of  sight 
and  indicating  on  it  the  degree  of  slope ;  take  a  second 
sight  from  (8),  or  (9).  The  point  of  Intersection 
locates  the  hill  on  your  paper  and  its  elevation  is  de- 
termined by  applying  your  scale  of  M.D.  along  thc: 
intersecting  lines. 


52  ELEMENTS   OF   AIILITARY   SKETCHING 

Telephone  or  telegraph  wires,  steel  or  iron  ores 
have  a  magnetic  influence  on  the  compass  needle  and 
will  deflect  it  if  close  by.  This  deflection  must  be 
guarded  against  in  orientation  by  keeping  as  far  away 
from  such  substances  as  practicable.  If  you  cannot 
get  but  25  yards  away  stand  directly  under  the  wires, 
in  the  center  of  the  railroad  track,  etc.  In  this  position 
the  magnetic  influence  will  be  exerted  equally  in  lateral 
directions,  and  will  not  seriously  interfere  with  the 
accurate  orientation.  If  such  precautions  are  not 
practicable,  orient  by  backsighting,  i.e.,  bring  your 
last  direction  line  to  point  towards  your  last  station, 
disregarding  the  fluctuations  of  the  compass  needle 
at  this  station. 

In  road  sketching  it  often  happens  that  a  change  of 
direction  of  the  route  causes  the  sketch  to  run  off  the 
paper  as  in  Fig.  30  flower  half).  When  this  occurs, 
draw  a  cross-line  at  right  angles  to  the  edge  of  your 
paper,  through  the  point  where  the  drawing  runs  off 
(A — B).  Draw  a  new  north  and  south  line  and  begin 
a  new  sketch  above  the  line  A — B.  (If  the  general 
direction  of  the  route  is  known,  the  starting  point  on 
the  paper  should  be  selected  with  a  view  of  getting 
as  much  of  the  sketch  as  possible  on  that  sheet.)  We 
may  thus  have  a  series  of  sections  of  the  same  route. 
Number  these  sections  In  sequence.  The  sketch  is 
finally  completed  by  pasting  the  several  sections  to- 
gether, or  on  a  larger  sheet  In  their  proper  order. 


ROAD   SKETCHING 


S3 


In  the  figure,  part  (2)  is  a  continuation  of  part  (i). 
When  putting  the  sections  together  point  A  is  laid 
on  point  B,  care  being  taken  to  make  the  north  and 


Fig.  30. 


south  Hues  of  all  sections  parallel.  If  the  north  and 
south  lines  are  not  parallel  it  will  have  the  same  effect 
as  inaccurate  orientation,  causing  an  error  of  direction 
in  the  completed  sketch. 


54  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

To  complete  the  sketch  a  simple  "legend"  or  title, 
with  the  name  of  the  sketcher,  is  added,  describing  the 
route,  scale,  vertical  interval,  etc.,  etc.  (Fig.  32). 
Written  titles  will  -answer  all  purposes,  though  print- 
ing is  generally  used. 

ROAD    3  KETCH 

from 

PLATT63URG  to  CHAZY.N.Y. 

slULY  191  e> 
By 

2d  Lieut  John  sSmifh,40th  Inf. 


^CALE'^3  JNCHES  =  /  MJLB. 
100 

v./.  =20 


100    O  SOO  lOOO 

Lu-l 1 1 1 I I I I I I I 


Fig.  32. 

With  sketches  that  are  not  intended  to  serve  as  the 
basis  for  blue  prints,  different  colored  pencils  may  be 
used  to  indicate  the  different  features.  For  example, 
contours  in  red,  woods  in  green,  water  courses  in  blue 
and  roads  in  yellow.  This  may  be  done  during  or 
after  finishing  the  field  work,  as  an  aid  to  readily 
reading  the  sketch. 

A  canvas  pencil  holder  with  five  or  six  compart- 
ments in  which  pencils  and  erasers  fit  in  snugly  can 


ROAD   SKETCHING  55 

be  readily  made,  and  pinned  to  the  shirt,  or  the  pencils, 
etc.,  should  be  tied  to  your  buttonholes  with  strings. 
Otherwise  you  will  be  constantly  losing  them. 
Other  points  to  be  observed  in  sketching  are : 

(a)  Be  sure  intersection  and  resection  points  are 
well  marked  to  avoid  sighting  back  on  the  wrong 
point. 

(b)  Keep  in  view  the  scale  of  the  sketch  and  the 
fact  that  you  cannot  show  minute  details.  Put  in  only 
controlling  features. 

(c)  Be  sure  to  keep  orientation  during  sightings. 
It  is  sometimes  convenient  to  lay  .the  board  on  the 
ground,  fence,  etc.,  while  sighting.  Check  your  orien- 
tation by  back-sighting  on  your  last  station. 

(J)  Do  not  leave  a  station  until  all  the  details 
up  to  that  point  are  put  in.  Finish  the  sketch  as 
you  go. 

(e)  Avoid  excessive  care  In  plotting  minor  details. 

(/)  In  sketching  a  broken  course,  such  as  a  zig-zag 
or  crooked  road,  do  not  take  a  sight  at  every  change 
of  direction.  Take  a  sight  as  far  ahead  as  you  can 
see,  and  put  In  intermediate  bends  by  estimation. 
The  fewer  the  sights,  the  greater  will  be  the  final 
accuracy. 

All  officers  and  non-commlssloned  officers  should  be 
capable  of  readily  making  a  hasty  reconnaissance  or 
place  sketch,  as  such  sketch  accompanied  by  a  written 
report  will  generally  give  more  complete  and  clear  In- 


ROAD   SKETCHING  57 

formation  than  can  be  conveyed  by  any  written  report 
alone.  As  the  proximity  of  the  enemy  will  prevent 
moving  about,  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  make  the 
sketch  from  one  station  and  sometimes  with  only  a 
notebook  and  pencil.  The  report  to  accompany  the 
sketch  shown  in  Fig.  33  might  be  as  follows :  "Boxford 
and  Watertown  are  joined  by  an  improved  road ;  hos- 
tile sentries  can  be  seen  along  the  edge  of  the  wood  on 
the  north  side  of  the  river  near  the  bridge.  From  the 
woods  west  of  Boxford  our  troops  could  easily  win 
the  fire-protection  of  the  houses,  which  are  generally 
of  brick.  The  cultivated  ground  east  of  Boxford 
affords  no  cover.  Natives  state  that  the  creek  is  easily 
fordable  200  yards  east  of  the  bridge." 


CHAPTER  VII 
POSITION  SKETCHING 

The  ordinary  military  map  is  an  example  of  a  posi- 
tion or  area  map  made  with  accurate  instruments,  and 
involving  considerable  time  in  its  preparation,  but  a 
position  sketch  must  usually  be  expeditiously  made, 
and  may  range  in  accuracy  from  the  crudest  outpost 
or  place  sketch  to  a  correct  map,  depending  on  the 
time  and  means  available  for  its  preparation.  Posi- 
tion sketches  are  for  the  purpose  of  showing  pros- 
pective battlefields,  camp  sites,  etc.,  when  no  maps 
of  the  area  are  available  (Plates  A  and  B  and  Fig. 
31).  Position  sketches  are  made  with  a  plane  table 
and  tripod  (Fig.  4). 

In  making  the  sketch,  the  first  effort  should  be  to 
plot  on  the  paper  the  location  of  prominent  features, 
such  as  railroads,  roads,  fences,  streams  and  water 
courses,  woods,  houses,  prominent  hilltops  or  water 
sheds,  and  sometimes  even  single  trees.  These 
plotted  points  will  later  help  to  locate  and  "fill  in" 
the  other  features  and  important  ground  forms  near 
them.  All  of  these  features  are  located  by  the 
base     line     methods      (intersection,      resection     and 

58 


POSITION   SKETCHING  59 

traversing).  A  base  line  is  a  traverse  (or  meas- 
ured course  within  the  area  to  be  sketched,  as 
from  A  to  D  (Plate  B),  on  which  are  two  or  more 
points  and  from  which  intersections  can  be  made 
to  locate  other  prominent  features.  Base  Hnes  and 
other  traverses  are  measured  by  pacing  and  are  plotted 
as  carefully  as  possible.  The  base  line  should  be  one- 
fourth  to  two  miles  long  depending  on  the  area.  As  a 
general  rule  its  length  should  not  be  less  than  one- 
third  as  long  as  the  greatest  dimension  of  the  area.  Its 
ends  should  be  marked  by  some  well-defined  point,  as 
telegraph  poles,  trees,  or  some  improvised  object.  A 
base  line  need  not  be  one  continuous  straight  Hne,  but 
with  an  irregular  base  line  more  care  is  required  than 
when  working  from  a  single  straight  line.  It  will 
usually  not  have  the  same  elevation  throughout,  though 
a  level  base  line  is  desirable. 

In  the  sketch  (Plate  B)  the  forks  of  the  road,  the 
houses,  the  bridge,  etc.,  are  located  by  intersec- 
tions from  the  base  line  A — D.  The  line  A — D  was 
selected  because  points  A  and  D  are  on  prominent 
ground  and  visible  from  each  other,  the  distance-^ — D 
can  be  measured  by  pacing,  other  prominent  features 
can  be  sighted  on  from  A  and  D,  or  from  points 
on  the  line  A — D. 

The  points  and  lines  referred  to  above,  when  plotted 
on  the  paper,  give  a  network  called  "control'*  over 
the  area.    After  this  control  is  obtained,  the  remaining 


i 


ELEMENTS  OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


Ti  Wayne 

wr      Z  mi. 


sTco/e^x  6  "=  /mi 
y./.  «  /O' 


■75  Hallio*/n  To  ■facfary 

6^2,  mi  ^mi. 

Plate  A. 


POSITION   SKETCHING 


6i 


'"-.     f^ 


Horizontal     frameworK 
■for   Position  yffKetch. 

Plate  B. 


v./.  *  /O'    ' 


62         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 

details  including  contours,  cultivation,  etc.,  can  be 
readily  filled  in,  as  any  feature  will  be  near  some  point 
or  line  already  located  on  the  paper. 

As  an  example,  set  up  and  orient  the  board  at  one 
end  of  the  base  line,  as  at  A.  Draw  a  meridian  near  the 
edge  of  your  paper.  From  this  first  station  sight  on  D 
and  draw  your  direction  line  towards  it;  then  sight 
on  other  easily  distinguishable  points,  such  as  hilltops, 
stream  junctions,  isolated  trees,  etc.,  drawing  light 
lines  from  your  position  towards  the  objects  sighted 
on;  this  is  the  first  step  in  locating  such  objects  by 
intersection.  Indicate  on  each  line  you  draw  the  de- 
gree of  slope  to  the  object  sighted  on ;  traverse  towards 
D,  halting  when  necessary  to  sketch  in  details  or 
sight  on  other  objects,  being  careful  to  keep  oriented 
during  each  sight.  This  orientation  is  usually  done 
by  backsighting  on  ^.  At  D,  or  favorable  intermediate 
points,  as  B  or  C,  complete  the  intersections  begun 
as  far  as  possible ;  you  will  now  have  a  number  of 
objects  and  prominent  points  located  on  your  paper; 
if  necessary  traverse  to  these  points  along  the  lines 
of  sight,  filling  in  as  you  go.  Contouring  of  any 
section  of  the  sketch  is  more  readily  and  accu- 
rately done  after  the  drainage  system  (watersheds 
and  water  courses)  in  that  section  have  been 
plotted.  The  elevation  of  your  starting  point  is 
known  or  assumed,  and  by  taking  the  degree  of  slope 
to  all  points  sighted  on  and  applying  your  scale  for 


POSITION   SKETCHING  63 

M.D.  approximate  contour  points  are  located.  The 
actual  tracing  of  the  contours  to  show  local  ground 
forms  will  be  done  by  eye.  Do  not  attempt  to  contour 
a  section  of  ground  until  you  have  passed  over  it,  and 
do  not  leave  a  station  until  all  details  up  to  that  point 
have  been  drawn  in. 

Plate  A  and  Fig.  31  are  examples  of  completed 
position  sketches. 

A  theoretical  knowledge  of  sketching  will  not,  with- 
out considerable  practicable  application,  make  one  a 
proficient  sketcher.  Military  sketches  to  be  of  much 
practical  use,  must  usually  be  made  rapidly.  While 
reasonable  accuracy  is  desirable',  too  great  refinement 
retards  the  progress,  and  adds  but  little  to  the  practical 
value  of  the  sketch.  As  much  care  as  is  consistent 
with  rapid  work  should  be  exercised  in  measuring 
courses  and  plotting.  Data  concerning  bridges, 
streams,  condition  of  the  roads  and  other  tactical 
features  should  be  noted  with  care  consistent  with  the 
object  of  the  sketch.  This  should  be  done  by  mar- 
ginal notes  as  in  Figs.  46  and  47.  Distances  to  objects 
off  the  route  must  usually  be  determined  by  estimation 
or  intersection,  slopes  estimated,  and  contours  inter- 
polated. The  ability  to  correctly  estimate  the  degree 
of  slope  between  two  points  is  soon  acquired  by  prac- 
tice. Most  sketchers  use  the  method  of  estimating  the 
difference  in  contour  intervjah  between  the  sighting 
point  and  the  object.     For  example,  if  one  is  at  an 


64         ELEAIEXTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

j 
elevation  of  400  and  sights  on  a  point  which  he  esti-  \ 
mates  to  be  3  contours  higher  (or  lower)  he  traces  | 
the  proper  contour  through  that  point,  and  draws  in  ! 
the  intermediate  ones  by  estimation.  1 

Experience  will  show  the  sketcher  the  way  to  many     1 
short  cuts  besides  the  ones  above  mentioned,  such  as     j 
rapid  orientation,   skill  in  drawmg  and  an  "eye   for 
ground"  in  contouring.  '. 

\ 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MAP  READING 

By  map  reading  is  meant  the  ability  to  grasp  not 
only  the  general  features  of  a  map,  but  to  form  a  clear 
mental  picture  of  the  appearance  of  the  ground  repre- 
sented. 

Map  reading  is  very  simple,  and  the  average  man 
can  learn  sufficient  about  it  for  all  practical  purposes  in 
one  or  two  lessons. 

The  beginner  will  do  well  to  omit  all  thoughts  of 
sand  tables,  clay  models,  horizontal  equivalents,  de- 
termination of  true  meridians  and  all  such  technical 
terms  that  only  serve  to  make  map  reading  seem  dif- 
ficult. 

It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  be  able  to  make  a  map 
before  learning  to  read  one,  though  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  map  making  has  taken  you  over  the  same 
ground  and  given  you  an  understanding  of  the  terms 
used   in   map   reading. 

If  you  are  teaching  map  reading,  use  a  12-inch 
map  hung  on  the  wall,  or  enough  3-inch  maps  to  give 
one  to  each  two  men. 

If  you  are  learning  map  reading  without  an  instruc- 
tor, use  any  contoured  map  of  3-inch  scale,  or  over. 

65 


66         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

There  are  but  four  elements  to  map  reading :  Direc- 
tion, Distance,  Conventional  Signs  and  Contours. 

Starting  with  direction,  the  arrow  on  the  map  points 
to  the  north.  On  modern  maps  the  north  is  at  the 
top.  The  south  is  then  at  the  bottom,  the  east  at  the 
right  and  the  west  at  the  left.  Pick  out  a  number  of 
points  on  the  map  and  determine  their  direction  from 
any  given  point, — this  as  a  matter  of  practice. 

There  is  nothing  else  to  learn  about  direction,  ex- 
cept when  you  are  using  the  map  on  the  ground  repre- 
sented. It  will  then  be  necessary  to  understand  the 
difference  between  true  north  and  magnetic  north  and 
the  symbol  for  each  (Fig.  13),  as  explained  under 
''Orientation"  in  Chapter  IV  of  this  text. 

Next  take  up  distance.  You  have  learned  that 
the  map  distance  between  any  two  points  shown  on 
the  map,  has  a  fixed  and  definite  relation  to  the  real 
distance  between  the  real  points  on  the  ground,  as  3 
inches  (map  distance)  equals  one  mile  on  the 
ground,  etc.  Conversely,  if  you  are  on  the  ground, 
to  measure  the  distance  between  any  two  points,  take 
the  map  distance  between  the  points  and  multiply  it 
by  the  proper  ratio  number  (R.  F.).  Or,  apply  the 
scale  which  appears  on  the  map '  and  read  ofif  the 
ground  distance  in  yards  or  miles. 

Conventional  signs  and  ahhreviations  are  given  in 
Chapter  II.  Learn  what  they  stand  for.  Conven- 
tional signs  can  not  be  drawn  to  scale,  except  for  very 


MAP   READING  67 

large  objects.  If  the  exact  dimensions  are  of  impor- 
tance, these  dimensions  will  usually  be  written  on  the 
map;  the  dimensions  of  a  bridge,  for  example. 

Contours  are  but  conventional  signs  to  show  the 
height,  shape  and  slope  of  the  ground. 

The  principles  of  contouring  have  been  explained 
in  Chapter  V.  Learn  to  distinguish  between  contour 
lines  and  the  signs  for  roads  and  streams. 

Usually  a  contour  has  its  height  labeled  on  it,  which 
means  the  ground  which  it  follows  is  that  many  feet 
above  sea  level  (or  other  datum  plane).  Remember 
that  all  points  on  any  contour  are  exactly  the  same 
height  above  sea  level.  If  the  height  of  a  contour  is 
not  indicated  on  it,  look  for  one  that  is  numbered  and 
count  back.  Knowing  that  on  the  same  map  all  con- 
tours are  the  same  vertical  distance  (V.I.)  apart  it  is 
then  a  simple  matter  to  determine  the  elevation  of  any 
particular  contour. 

Usually  every  fifth  contour  is  drawn  in  heavy  lines, 
indicating  even  hundreds  on  a  3-inch  map,  and  fifties 
on  a  6-inch  map. 

If  there  is  a  point  through  which  no  contour  passes, 
this  ground  is  not  as  low  as  the  contour  below,  nor  as 
high  as  the  contour  above.  It  is,  obviously,  the  inter- 
mediate ground  between  two  contours  and  its  exact 
elevation  can  not  be  determined,  though  it  is  assumed 
that  the  ground  between  two  contour  lines  slopes  uni- 
formly. 


68  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

-  The  highest  point  of  a  hill  does  not  usually  corre- 
spond with  the  highest  contour,  so  that  its  exact  eleva- 
tion is  sometimes  indicated  by  figures,  as  427.  In  this 
case  the  crest  is  7  feet  higher  than  the  last  contour 
(420)  but  not  high  enough  to  be  indicated  by  the  next 
contour. 

Where  contours  lie  closest  the  ground  is  steepest, 
and  where  they  are  further  apart  the  ground  is  more 
nearly  flat.  You  can  find  the  degree  of  any  slope  by 
applying  the  slope  scale  (Fig.  2^) ,  or  work  it  out 
for  yourself  by  remembering  that  in  a  slope  of  i  de- 
gree there  is  a  rise  of  i  foot  in  every  57.3  feet  of 
horizontal  distance. 

To  find  the  difference  in  elevation  (if  the  contours 
are  not  numbered)  between  two  points,  count  the  con- 
tour spaces  and  multiply  by  their  distance  apart  (V.L). 
To  find  the  average  grade  of  a  road,  measure  the 
ground  distance  in  feet,  and  divide  by  the  number  of 
contour  intervals.  That  will  give  you  the  average 
ground  distance  between  contours.  Then  apply  your 
table  of  slopes  in  Chapter  V. 

While  contours  on  an  ordinary  map  may  seem  much 
involved,  it  is  only  on  account  of  their  number,  their 
many  turns,  and  because  many  of  them  run  of¥  the 
map.  Remember  that  a  contour  either  closes  on  it- 
self or  runs  ofif  the  map. 

The  water  around  an  island  in  a  lake  is  the  same 
level.     Suppose  you  mark  around  the  water's  edge  with 


MAP  READING  69 

a  piece  of  chalk.  You  will  then  have  a  line,  all  points 
of  which  are  of  equal  elevation,  i.  e.,  a  contour.  If 
the  water  level  is  then  raised  20  feet  (vertical  dis- 
tance), another  mark  around  the  water  level  would  be 
somewhat  less  in  circumference  than  the  first  mark, 
and  its  course  would  probably  not  have  the  same 
irregularities,  but  it  would  as  surely  close  on  itself 
and  show  the  exact  shape  of  the  island  at  that  par- 
ticular level,  and  would  also  be  a  contour. 

A  closed  contour  indicates  a  hill  (Fig.  34.)  (A 
depression  may  be  also  represented  by  a  closed  contour, 
but  this  formation  is  seldom  found  unless  the  depres- 
sion slopes  to  a  body  of  water,  and  then,  of  course, 
the  formation  is  easily  recognized.)  An  open  contour 
indicates  a  ridge  or  a  valley.  If  valleys  contain  stream 
lines  they  are  easily  recognized,  but  when  there  is  no 
stream  line  indicated  you  will  sometimes  not  be  able 
to  tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  formation  is  a  ridge 
or  a  valley. 

Compare  the  appearance  of  the  contours  indicating 
valleys  and  ridges  in  Fig.  34.  You  will  observe 
that  the  bends  of  the  contours  around  the  heads  of 
the  valleys  are  much  sharper  than  the  bends  around 
a  nose  or  ridge.  In  a  typical  formation  the  ridges 
are  wider  than  the  valleys.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  in  the  case  of  a  "hogback"— a  very  sharp 
ridge. 

Rem.ember  that  in   watersheds  the   contours  bulge 


70         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

towards  the  lower  ground,  and  in  water  courses  they 
bend  sharply  towards  the  higher  ground. 

The  drainage  system  is  the  key  to  reading  any  map. 
First  locate  the  streams.  You  will  find  that  all  other 
ground  is  higher  and  slopes  towards  the  streams.  The 
formation  is  always  ridge,  valley,  (high,  low)  ridge, 
valley.     There  is  never  one  without  the  other. 

If  contours  are  numbered,  you  have  only  to  look  at 
the  numbers  to  be  able  to  tell  which  is  low,  and  which 
is  high  ground,  but  to  read  a  map  readily,  you  should 
be  quite  independent  of  these  numbers. 

Visibility 

The  problem  of  visibility  is  a  stumbling  block  to  the 
beginner  in  map  reading.  To  him  the  subject  is  not  of 
great  practical  value  and  he  will  find  that  it  will  be 
quite  easily  mastered  when  he  has  first  become  pro- 
ficient in  the  other  elements  of  map  reading. 

Visibility  simply  means  if  you  were  standing  at  a 
certain  point  would  you  be  able  to  see  some  other 
point,  or  area?  If  you  were  standing  on  a  certain  hill, 
could  you  see  troops,  etc.,  at  some  other  indicated 
point  of  the  ground  represented  ? 

Problems  in  visibility  can  be  accurately  worked  out 
by  a  system  of  "profiles."  This  method  is  explained 
in  more  advanced  books  on  map  reading.  The  fol- 
lowing simple  method  gives  results  that  are  sufficiently 
accurate  for  all  practical  purposes. 


MAP  READING  71 

(a)  Assume  that  you  are  standing  on  Hill  920,  four 
hundred  yards  west  of  J.  Todd  (Fig.  31).  Can  you 
tell  from  the  map  whether  you  could  see  Patton? 
Draw  a  straight  line  from  your  position  on  the  map 
to  Patton  to  represent  your  line  of  sight.  Following 
this  line  you  go  down  the  hill  to  the  stream  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  830.  It  is  evident  that  to  this  point  there  is 
no  ground  to  obstruct  your  view  of  Patton.  Follow 
the  line  up  the  hill  to  Patton,  which  is  at  elevation 
940.  Patton  is  higher  than  your  position,  and  as  all 
the  ground  between  the  two  points  is  lower  it  is  ap- 
parent that  there  is  no  ground  to  obstruct  your  view, 
and  that  Patton  is  visible  from  Hill  920. 

(b)  Standing  at  the  same  point,  can  you  see  Stofa? 
Following  the  line  of  sight,  you  find  that  Stofa  has 
the  same  elevation  as  your  position,  and  that  all  inter- 
mediate ground  is  lower,  therefore  Stofa  is  visible. 

(c)  From    the     same    point,     can    you     see    the 

— bridge  at  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  map? 

10 

A  straight  line  crosses  the  lower  ground  to  the 
stream  and  then  rises  to  an  elevation  of  940.  The 
ground  from  940  slopes  to  the  bridge,  which  is  at 
elevation  800.  It  is  apparent  that  the  ridge  940  ob- 
structs your  view  and  that  the  bridge  is  not  visible  from 
920. 

(d)  Standing  at  Tomlin,  can  you  see  the  R.  R. 
bridge  north  of  the  Hill  920? 


72         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

Tomlin  is  at  Elevation  940,  and  as  no  ground  as  high 
or  higher  intervenes  it  is  apparent  that  you  can  see 
to  Hill  920.  From  Hill  920,  the  ground  slopes  down 
to  the  bridge,  which  is  at  elevation  about  840. 

From  Tomlin  to  the  crest  of  920  hill  is  800  yards. 
As  your  line  of  sight  can  not  be  lower  than  920  at  this 
point,  it  has  fallen  a  maximum  of  20  feet  in  a  distance 
of  800  yards,  and  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  line 
of  sight  to  fall  80  feet  in  the  remaining  400  yards  to 
be  able  to  see  the  bridge. 

As  the  line  of  sight  falls  20  feet  in  a  distance  of  800 
yards,  or  one  foot  elevation  in  40  yards  direction,  it 
would,  if  continued  the  additional  400  yards,  fall  10 
feet  more, — bring  a  straight  line  tangent  to  Hill  920. 
In  order  to  be  able  to  see  the  bridge  it  would  have 
to  be  at  an  elevation  of  10  feet  less  than  920,  or  910 
feet.  As  the  bridge  is  at  elevation  840,  it  is  apparent 
that  it  can  not  be  seen  from  Tomlin. 

(e)  Where  would  this  same  line  of  sight  from  Tom- 
lin, just  touching  Hill  920,  pierce  the  ground? 

From  Tomlin  a  line  of  sight  tangent  to  Hill  920  has 
fallen  20  feet  in  2^1  inches,  or  7.4  feet  in  each  inch, 
map  distance.  As  the  line  of  sight  is  straight,  this 
proportion  will  be  continued.  Continue  the  line 
towards  the  top  of  the  map,  and  measure  off  i  inch 
from  the  Hill  920.  Your  line  of  sight  will  have  fur- 
ther fallen  7.4  feet  in  this  distance,  and  you  would 
be  able  to  see  a  point  with  an  elevation  of  912.6  feet. 


MAP  READING  73 

As  this  point  is  over  elevation  840  it  is  apparent  that 
the  Hne  of  sight  continues.  In  one  additional  inch  the 
fall  will  be  to  elevation  903.2.  This  point  is  over 
elevation  about  840.  An  additional  inch  will  bring  the 
elevation  down  to  895.8  feet,  and  the  end  of  the  third 
inch  is  on  Contour  910.  Therefore  the  line  of  sight 
will  pierce  the  ground  before  reaching  the  elevation 
910,  or  between  840  and  910,  i.  e.,  within  the  last  inch 
measured. 

Within  this  last  inch  there  has  been  a"  rise  on  the 
ground  of  70  feet.  A  rise  of  only  55.8  feet  (895- 
840)  was  necessary. 

Assuming  that  the  ground  slopes  equally  we  can  find 
the  exact  distance  by  proportion. 

55.8  :  70 : :  X  :  1=  .8  inch. 

I  inch  +  I  ii^ch  +  -S  inch  =  2.8  inches.  This  dis- 
tance measured  from  Hill  920  brings  the  point  to  about 
Contour  900. 

If  trees  intervene,  assume  their  height  as  40  feet. 

Practice  will  show  the  way  to  short  cuts  in  this 
method,  but  the  principles  remain  the  same. 


CHAPTER  IX 
LANDSCAPE  SKETCHING  i 

Landscape  sketching  is  an  elaboration  on  place 
sketching  in  which  the  details  are  shown  by  perspec- 
tive, i.  e.,  by  actually  drawing  in  the  pictures  of  the 
objects  so  that  they  seem  to  lessen  as  they  are  more 
distant  from  the  eye.  It  is  the  means,  par  excellence, 
for  designation  of  targets  in  combat,  and  is  of  great 
military  importance  in  illustrating  a  reconnaissance  or 
in  making  outpost  sketches.  It  also  affords  a  ready 
means  of  identifying  bridges,  fords,  road  forks,  and 
other  landmarks,  by  small  marginal  drawings  on  road 
sketches. 

A  landscape  sketch  shows  the  terrain  graphically 
and  reauires  no  knowledge  of  map  reading  to  under- 
stand. The  horizon  is  always  of  military  importance. 
This  is  always  shown,  as  well  as  intervening  crests, 
woods,  houses,  fences,  etc. 

Drawing  teaches  one  to  judge  ground  rapidly  and 
develops  an  accuracy  of  observation  which  mechan- 
ically notes  the  form  and  appearance  of  things.    There 

^  Based  on  a  study  by  the  School  of  Musketry,  Fort  Sill, 
Oklahoma.  By  permission  of  Colonel  R.  M.  Blatchford, 
Infantry,  Commandant. 

74 


LANDSCAPE  SKETCHING  75 

is  no  surer  way  or  quicker  method  of  educating  the 
eye  to  estimate  distances  and  to  see  miUtary  features 
of  the  terrain,  than  actual  practice  in  sketching. 

While  landscape  sketching  is  done  from  the  ter- 
rain in  perspective,  it  requires  no  special  artistic  ability 
and,  when  attacked  in  earnest,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
no  more  difficult  and,  to  many,  far  easier  and  more 
interesting  than  topographical  sketching. 

The  sketch  is  made  while  remaining  in  one  spot, 
as  in  place  sketching,  and  is  usually  executed  while 
seated. 

The  positions  of  objects  on  the  sketch  are  located  by 
the  angular  deflection,  measured  in  mils  from  the 
Reference  Point. 

A  mil  is  an  angle  of  3  minutes,  or  one  sixty-four- 
hundredth  of  a  circle.  These  numbers  are  not  abso- 
lutely accurate,  but  are  used  in  mil  measurements 
as  a  matter  of  convenience.  In  other  words,  the  entire 
distance  around  the  horizon  is  6400  mils  in  terms  of 
angular  measurement. 

The  Reference  Point  selected  must  be  clearly  defined 
(school  house  in  Fig.  44).  It  will  seldom  be  exactly 
in  the  hostile  position,  or  position  to  be  sketched.  It 
may  be  a  peak  20  miles  beyond,  or  a  house  or  a  tree 
nearer  or  more  distant  than  the  lines  of  enemy  troops. 

The  paper  used  by  a  patrol  leader  will  be  his  note- 
book or  the  back  of  a  field  message  blank  (Signal 
Corps,  207A).     For  practice  a  sheet  of  paper  about  5 


76 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


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i-t    !_}     ;;      li,     ■ 



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(IJ       rf     Jh 

LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  77 

X  8  inches  has  been  found  very  satisfactory.  The 
length  of  the  sketch  (laterally)  will  seldom  exceed  8 
inches,  which  includes  a  visual  angle  of  about  30 
degrees  (533  mils),  or  one-twelfth  the  entire  distance 
around  the  horizon.  A  pad  especially  prepared  is 
furnished  for  this  work  by  the  School  of  Mus- 
ketry (Fig.  35).  The  sheets  are  8^X5^  inches. 
Four  horizontal  lines  in  light  blue  and  at  half 
inch  intervals  are  drawn  just  below  the  center  of  the 
sheet,  the  four  enclosing  a  strip  i^  inches  wide. 
This  strip  marks  the  vertical  limits  of  the  sketch. 
Ten  vertical  lines,  also  of  light  blue,  cross  the  paper  at 
equal  distance  apart.  These  lines  are  of  value  as 
guides  in  dropping  the  features  of  the  landscape, 
located  over  the  top  of  the  paper,  down  to  the  sketch. 
An  improvised  pad  can  be  readily -canstructed. 

A  cord  run  through  an  eyelet  in  the  center  of  the 
backing  of  the  pad  near  the  top,  and  knotted  at  ex- 
actly 15  inches,  is  used  to  insure  the  paper  being  held 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  eye  each  time  a  sight 
is  taken. 

With  this  length  of  cord,  the  interval  between  lines 
subtends,  or  measures,  a  space  of  50  mils.  If  an 
improvised  pad  is  being  used  (as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience) the  vertical  lines  may  be  one-half  inch 
apart.  In  this  case,  with  a  lo-inch  string  the  interval 
between  lines  subtends  50  mils,  and  a  20-inch  string, 
25  mils. 


78 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING 


79 


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t^^ji^ 


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Soil  A  :nI;--  '-: 


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ELE.MEXTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


GT  a 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING 


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ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


4h 


2    u 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  83 

At  the  top  of  the  paper  are  two  heavy  orientation 
marks  (triangles)  and  three  horizontal  black  lines. 
The  orientation  marks  are  placed  to  show  the  total 
width  of  the  sector  included  in  the  sketch  and  the 
three  lines  define  the  divisions  marked  for  Target  (T), 
Range  {RN),  and  Deflection  (DF)  (distance  in  mils 
to  the  right  or  left  of  the  Reference  Point). 

On  the  left,  below  the  picture,  is  a  place  for  a 
description  of  the  position  from  which  the  sketch 
was  made  (Figs.  40,  41,  42,  43  and  44).  In  the  center 
is  a  circle  to  contain  the  number  of  the  sketch  and 
to  indicate  its  position  when  a  series  of  sketches,  or 
panorama  is  made  (Fig.  45).  By  the  side  of  this 
circle,  an  arrowhead  with  one  barb  is  drawn  to  show 
the  magnetic  north.  On  the  right  are  spaces  for  time, 
date,   name,   rank  and  organization  of  the  sketcher. 

When  landscape  sketches  are  made  on  the  back  of 
a  field  message  blank,  if  the  blank  is  held  20  inches 
from  the  eye,  each  inch  of  the  rule  printed  at  the  top 
of  the  sheet  measures  50  mils ;  at  10  inches,  100  mils. 

For  years,  the  landscape  sketch  has  been  used  by 
Field  Artillery  in  target  designation.  Its  value  in 
connection  with  rifle  fire  has  only  recently  been  appre- 
ciated by  Infantry.2 

2  In  field  artillery  firing,  deflections  to  the  right  or  left 
are  indicated  in  terms  of  mils.  It  is,  no  doubt,  on  this 
account,  and  because  of  its  convenience  as  a  unit  of  angular 
measure,  that  the  mil  is  used  in  landscape  sketching. 


84 


ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


'LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  S'S 

The  deflection,  or  lateral  distance  of  the  target  from 
the  Reference  Point  is  given  in  mils.  This  deflection 
and  the  range  in  yards  are  both  entered  along  the 
upper  margin  of  the  paper  together  with  any  ex- 
planatory data.  The  error  in  deflection  should  never 
exceed  lO  mils.  Ranges  v^ill  usually  be  determined 
by  estimation.  The  manner  of  their  determination — 
whether  measured  or  estimated — should  be  noted  on 
the  sketch. 

By  means  of  landscape  sketches,  a  patrol  leader  can 
render  his  report  clear,  brief  and  accurate.  A  few; 
lines  and  explanatory  remarks  will  convey  much  valu- 
able information  difficult  to  describe  otherwise.  A 
report  locating  the  hostile  dispositions  with  reference 
to  easily  recognized  features,  showing  crest  lines  and 
possible  firing  positions,  may  be  made  from  the  con- 
cealment offered  by  some  brush  or  rocks. 

The  position  of  the  sketcher  is  indicated  by  a  small 
circle  and  an  arrowhead  pointing  in  the  direction 
illustrated. 

Small  marginal  drawings  of  fords,  bridges,  land- 
marks, etc.,  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  any  road 
sketch ;  with  the  map  alone  there  is  often  difficulty  in 
identifying  such  places.  This  difficulty  is  eliminated 
if  a  small  sketch  of  the  feature  appears  on  the  margin 
of  the  map  (Fig.  46  and  47). 

It  is  not  necessary  to  be  an  artist  to  produce  a 
useful  military  landscape  sketch.     The  essential  thing 


86         ELEMENTS   OF  MILITARY  SKETCHING  ] 

is  the  rough  indication  of  the  miHtary  features.     Ef- 
fect and  harmony  are  entirely  secondary.     The  begin-       j 
ner  will  at  first  be  confused  with  the  mass  of  detail       j 
in  the  landscape  before  him.     He  must  ignore  all  but       i 
the  outline  of  the  features  sketched.    Omit  even  promi-       ' 
nent  details  in  the  foreground  that  are  not  of  value       i 
to  the  sketch,  such  as  telephone  poles,  trees,  etc.,  and      : 
all    unimportant    details.      Absolute    accuracy   in    the 
detail  of  the  appearance  of  houses,  trees,  etc.,  is  not 
essential.  | 

The  sketcher  first  draws  the  outline  of  Tmportant      \ 
military  points  (as  sky  line  and  crests),  and  then  fills 
in  other  details  zifith  fewest  lines  possible ;  unnecessary 
shading  tends  to  confuse  and  detracts  from  the  clear- 
ness of  the  sketch.  i 

The  beginner  will  do  well  at  first  to  copy  other  , 
landscape  drawings.  By  so  doing,  he  will  soon  learn 
to  handle  his  pencil,  and  will  gain  confidence  in  him-  \ 
seff.  Then  make  several  sketches  of  the  same  country. 
A  careful  study  of  the  ground  before  commencing  to  j 
draw  will  assist  greatly.  Field  glasses  will  define  ac-  ^ 
cidents  and  details  of  the  terrain  not  plain  to  the  eye.       I 

The  chief  difficulty  experienced  by  the  beginner  is       \ 
in  producing  the  receding  efifect  in  the  picture — the       ■ 
perspective.    To  overcome  this,  note  carefully  the  size 
of  the  objects;  looking  at  the  landscape,  the  further      \ 
the  objects  are  away,  the  smaller  they  look.     Alake 
them  so  in  the  drazving.  \ 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING 


87 


SKYLINE    AND    CRESTS, 


•>g/x-v:>7Y»v«-'-'r 


32^i2£Z::^^ 


//^■^ 


WOODS    BEHIND    CRESTS. 


'u^''lM^2r^      ^^  i^'^'<d'C(?/>;r.'  > 


^^i^l^f/f/J}^^^  zyZ 


WOODS   IN   RELIEF. 

Fig.  36. 


88  ELEMENTS  OF   MILITARY  SKETCHLXG 


SUCCESSIVE   LINES    OF    WOODS. 


LONE    TREES. 


i:1^'-^ 


^K 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  89 

The  comparative  size  of  objects  near  and  distant 
may  be  noted  by  holding  a  pencil  at  arm's  length  be- 
fore the  eye  and  defining  the  limits  of  the  object 
between  the  thumb  and  the  end  of  the  pencil.  Heavy 
lines  are  used  for  objects  in  the  foreground,  medium 
lines  for  objects  in  the  middle  distance,  and  the  back- 
ground is  sketched  by  fine  lines  with  a  hard  pencil. 

First  draw  the  sky  line,  then  work  towards  the  front, 
and  gradually  thicken  the  strokes. 

It  may  be  advantageous  for  a  beginner  to  use  three 
pencils  of  varying  hardness  as  an  H  for  the  fore- 
ground, 3H  for  middle  distance  and  5H  for  back- 
ground. Commercial  pencils,  Nos.  2  and  3,  pointed 
and  used  with  care,  produce  the  same  results  and  are 
always  available.  Several  pencils  should  be  carried, 
pointed  and  ready  for  use. 

To  put  in  woods,  sketch  the  outline  of  the  tree  tops 
with  a  succession  of  short  curves,  then  draw  a  broken 
line  to  show  the  near  edge  of  the  woods,  and  fill  the 
space  between  with  diagonal  shading.  This  is  the  only 
shading  required  in  the  entire  landscape  sketch,  the 
result  being  that  trees  stand  out  prominently  among 
the  other  details.  A  tree  on  a  plain  or  slope,  in  full 
view,  will  show  a  portion  of  the  trunk.  Trees  par- 
tially concealed  by  ridges,  show  only  the  rounded  tops. 
Draw  only  the  silhouette  or  outline  of  the  tree — 
do  not  attempt  detail  of  branches. 

All  roads  are  shown  by  two  unbroken  lines  repre- 


90         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 


POLE    LINES 


railroad. 
Fig.  38. 


VILLAGES. 


^SU 


I_J__^J3 n       n   1 Lfl  n  .■ 


buildings  and  village. 
Fig.  39. 


92  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

senting  the  edges,  which  get  closer  together  as  the 
road  recedes,  until  they  unite,  forming  one  line. 
(Fig.  37)' 

Do  not  attempt  to  show  unimproved  roads  and  trails 
by  dotted  lines,  as  on  contoured  sketches — use  solid 
lines  and  place  any  explanatory  data  in  the  T-section 
at  the  top  of  the  paper. 

Draw  only  the  outline  or  silhouette  of  buildings. 
(Fig-  39). 

Practice  in  Landscape  Sketching 

(a)  A  beginner  in  landscape  sketching  should  first 
copy  some  typical  sketches.  He  will  thus  learn  how  to 
handle  his  pencils,  the  relative  weights  of  the  lines 
in  foreground  and  distance,  and  the  extreme  small 
size  of  the  few  conventional  signs  used  to  represent 
troops.  He  will  also  appreciate  the  importance  of  a 
sharp  point  to  his  pencils,  and  keep  several  always 
ready  for  use. 

(b)  The  next  step  should  be  the  drawing  of  imagi- 
nary landscapes.  This  is  excellent  practice.  Skylines 
and  intermediate  crests  can  be  drawn,  and  troops  of  all 
arms  placed  in  position. 

(c)  Select  a  convenient  section  and  sketch  the  same 
landscape  at  least  once  a  day  until  the  result  is  satisfac- 
tory. 

(d)  Select  other  landscapes  for  practice. 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  "  93 

(e)   Allow   ten   minutes    for   the   completion   of   a 
sketch.  1 

Making  the  Sketch  i 

1.  Hold  the  sketching  pad  in  front  of  the  eyes,  fac-  i 
ing  the  ground  to  be  sketched,  upper  edge  of  paper 
horizontal,  the  cord  knot  in  the  teeth.  i 

2.  Close  one  eye,  and  move  the  paper  laterally  until 

the  sector  desired  is  included  between  the  two  orienta-  : 

tion  marks.    The  paper  is  now  oriented.  i 

3.  With  the  paper  thus  oriented,  the  points  or  ob-  i 
jects  in  the  sector  are  visible  along  the  upper  edge,  j 
appearing  in  their  proper  relative  positions,  horizontal  i 
and  vertical. 

4.  With  a  pencil,  place  a  mark  near  the  upper  edge  \ 
of  the  paper  opposite  the  most  prominent  points  or  ! 
objects  in  the  sector.  Prominent  features  on  the  1 
skyline  should  be  located  first,  as  they  aid  materially  | 
in  placing  other  points  in  the  drawing.  i 

5.  The  lateral  location  of  points  on  the  skyline  be- 
ing thus  determined,  place  the  paper  on  the  knee  or  \ 
other  convenient  support  and  transfer  the  marks  from  | 
the  upper  edge  to  the  ''sketch  section"  of  the  paper.  j 
Commence  with  the  mark  opposite  the  highest  point,  ' 
which  is  placed  on  the  first  blue  line.  This  determines  j 
the  highest  part  of  the  sketch.  The  marks  locating 
other  features  are  transposed  in  their  relative  verti-  ! 
cal  and  horizontal  positions.                                                      | 


94         ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 

6.  Draw  the  skyline,  lightly,  by  connecting  the 
transposed  marks.  This  will  give  the  horizon  in 
profile. 

7.  Other  points,  crests,  targets,  etc.,  are  now  en- 
tered in  the  same  manner,  reorienting  the  paper  when 
necessary.  With  practice,  the  other  features  of  the 
landscape  may  be  drawn  in  without  reorientation, 
once  the  skyline  has  been  located  on  the  sketch. 

8.  The  immediate  foreground  is  indicated  by  a  very 
heavy  line  above  the  circle.  This  may  be  made  by 
using  the  side  of  the  pencil  point. 

By  this  method,  the  lateral  proportions  of  the 
sketch  will  be  fairly  accurate.  The  vertical  should  be 
slightly  exaggerated.  Xo  effort  need  be  made  to  ef- 
fect this,  since  most  sketchers  wnll  do  so  unconsciously. 

In  addition  to  the  skyline,  important  crest  lines  and 
other  features  should  be  sketched  in.  The  position  of 
fences,  roads,  walls,  and  woods  of  possible  militar}^ 
value  must  be  included.  Features  of  the  foreground 
are  omitted  unless  of  military  importance. 

No  effort  should  be  made  to  obtain  purely  artistic 
effect. 

Avoid  detail.  Show  buildins^s,  woods,  trees,  and 
other  features  only  in  the  outline  of  the  silhouette. 

The  only  shading  is  used  in  showing  woods. 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  95 

Military  Data 

The  Reference  Point  selected  must  be  an  object 
easily  recognized  by  another  person  using  the  sketch. 

It  is  indicated  on  the  sketch  by  a  vertical  line  drawn 
from  near  the  top  of  the  paper,  stopping  just  above  the 
point  or  object.  (Fig.  43.)  An  arrowhead  is  drawn 
at  the  lower  end  of  this  line  and  a  zero  (o),  is  bisected 
in  the  deflection  (DF)  section. 

A  reference  point  is  ahifays  designated. 

2.  In  the  T-section  at  the  top  of  the  sketch,  is  en- 
tered the  name  or  description  of  the  Reference  Point 
and  all  other  objects  identified,  including  the  letter 
denoting  the  nature  of  the  target  (Enemy). 

(I.,  infantry;  C,  cavalry;  A.,  artillery;  M.G.,  ma- 
chine guns). 

3.  Targets  are  accurately  indicated  on  the  sheet  by 
the  use  of  conventional  signs.  None  but  the  author- 
ized conventional  signs  should  be  used. 

In  addition  to  these  conventional  signs,  the  location 
is  emphasized  by  a  perpendicular  dropped  from  the 
T  line.  At  the  top  of  this  perpendicular,  the  abbrev- 
iation I.,  C,  A.,  or  M.G.,  further  indicates  the  nature 
of  the  target. 

In  case  the  target  or  position  shown  has  considerable 
linear  dimensions,  as  infantry  deployed,  a  perpendicu- 
lar is  dropped  to  each  end  of  the  line  occupied. 
(Fig.  41.) 


96         ELEMENTS  OF   MILITARY  SKETCHING 

4.  Information  concerning  the  target  (and  nothing 
else)  is  written  vertically  upon  the  sketch  along  the 
perpendiculars  in  the  broad  space  between  the  sketch 
and  the  DF  line. 

For  example  on  perpendiculars  headed 

I.     • 

4  Plat.  col.  advancing. 

Entrenched. 

Column,  moving  east. 

C. 

Led  horses. 
Moving  north. 

A. 

4  gans  in  positions. 
Limbered. 

M.G. 
4  guns  in  positions. 

Moving  west. 

5.  The  range,  estimated  or  measured,  is  entered 
in  the  RN  space,  across  the  perpendicular,  indicating 
the  target  or  object.  The  method  of  determining  the 
range  is  written  after  RN — ''Estimated"  or  ''Meas- 
ured." 


LANDSCAPE   SKETCHING  97 

When  the  terrain  is  so  extensive  that  more  than  one 
sketch  is  required  to  cover  it,  sketches  are  numbered 
serially  within  the  circle  at  the  bottom  of  the  pad. 
The  location  and  direction  illustrated  on  each  sketch 
are  identified  by  the  corresponding  number  in  a  circle 
with  an  arrow  pointing  towards  it. 

7.  The  compass  bearing  is  shown  by  an  arrow  with 
one  barb,  drawn  beside  the  circle.  To  determine  its 
direction,  orient  the  sketch  in  a  horizontal  position 
with  the  "vertical"  line  marking  the  Reference  Point 
pointing  tozvard  the  Reference  Point.  Then  draw  the 
arrow  parallel  to  the  compass  needle,  barb  toward  the 
north. 

8.  The  time,  date  and  signature  entered  in  the  right- 
hand  lower  corner  completes  the  sketch. 

Joining  Sketches 

Several  sketches  will  often  be  made  from  one  posi- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  showing  more  terrain  than  can 
be  included  on  one  sketch. 

Whenever  two  sketches  are  to  be  joined,  the  same 
terrain  feature  must  appear  on  each — near  the  left  edge 
of  one  and  the  right  edge  of  the  other.  When  giyen 
a  terrain  too  wide  to  be  included  in  one  sketch,  the 
procedure  is  as  follows: 

Make  a  complete  sketch,  including  the  terrain 
from   the    left,    for    example,    as    far    as    the    paper 


98  ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

will  permit  toward  the  right,  noting  an  object  approxi- 
mately beneath  the  right  orientation  mark  and  prefer- 
ably on  the  skyline.  The  next  sketch  will  commence 
with  its  left  orientation  mark  over  the  feature  noted 
on  the  right  of  the  preceding  sketch — this  feature 
appearing  on  both  sketches.  This  repeating  of  a  fea- 
on  two  adjacent  sketches  is  continued  until  the  re- 
quired sector  of  terrain  is  covered — up  to  a  complete 
panorama  of  360°.     (Fig.  45.) 

A  series  of  seven  sketches  may  be  made,  for  ex- 
ample, from  one  position,  giving  a  panorama  of  180°. 
If  this  panorama  extends  from  the  east  through  the 
north  to  the  west,  the  arrow  on  the  first  sketch  indi- 
cating the  magnetic  bearing  will  lie  parallel  to  the 
bottom  of  the  paper  pointing  to  the  observer's  right, 
the  arrow  on  the  fourth  sketch  (looking  north)  will 
lie  at  right  angles  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  paper 
pointing  toward  the  top,  and  the  arrow  on  the  last 
sketch  (looking  west)  will  lie  parallel  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  paper,  pointing  to  the  observer's  left.  The 
arrows  of  the  second  and  third  sketches  will  occupy 
intermediate  positions  with  reference  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  paper  between  those  of  the  first  and  fourth 
sketches,  and  the  arrows  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  sketches 
intermediate  positions  between  the  fourth  and  sev- 
enth. 

In  assembling  to  form  a  panorama,  the  sketches  are 
placed  in  order  on  a  flat  surface  with  all  the  arrows 


LANDSCAPE  SKETCHING  99 

parallel.  In  the  above  example,  a  panorama  extend- 
ing through  180°,  the  sketches  form  a  semicircle. 
(Fig.  450 

In  "joining"  two  adjacent  sketches,  the  corner  of 
the  right  sketch,  for  example,  is  folded  under  and  in  a 
line  through  the  center  of  the  common  feature.  (The 
fold  usually  strikes  the  lower  edge  of  the  paper  about 
an  inch  from  the  corner,  and  the  right  edge  about 
Yi  inch  from  the  top.)  Place  the' folded  sketch  over 
the  other,  so  that  half  the  common  feature  will  be 
visible  on  each  sketch,  and  with  this  common  feature 
as  a  pivot,  turn  the  right  sketch  until  the  arrows  of 
both  sketches  are  parallel.  The  crests  and  other 
features  of  the  two  sketches  should  meet  approxi- 
mately along  the  edge  of  the  fold.  The  position  of 
the  right  sketch  folded  under  will  depict  the  identical 
terrain  it  covers  on  the  left  sketch. 

As  landscape  sketches  are  made  rapidly  and  with  a 
free  hand,  some  adjustment  of  data  will  usually  be 
necessarv  to  secure  unbroken  lines  where  the  sketches 
m.eet.  The  joining  sho'ild  be  checked  on  the  ground 
and  corrections  made  without  n^    Nation. 

When  several  joined  sketches  are  necessary,  each 
sketch  should  be  complete  in  itself  with  reference 
points,  deflection'^    etc. 

The  sj<:etches  will  be  joined  as  chords  of  a  circle, 
and  not  arcs.  This  is  because  the  successive  sketches 
are  drawn  on  flat  surfaces,  and  between  straight  hori- 


lOO        ELEMENTS  OF   MILITARY   SKETCHING 

zontal  lines.  A  panorama  will  therefore  consist  of  a 
series  of  sketches  joined  by  slight  angles.  This  will 
be  found  to  interfere  little  with  the  accurate  repre- 
sentation of  the  terrain. 


kv///////^yy/^^//y////y/y/y^^^^^ 


MILITARY  BOOKS 


A  Short  Title  List 
of  Standard  Books 
on  Military  Science 
of  All  Publishers 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

Headquarters  for 

MILITARY  BOOKS  SINCE  1848 

25  PARK  PLACE  NEW  YORK 


I 

>//////////////////////////////////'////y>//////////////////////////////////////^^^ 


STANDARD  MILITARY  BOOKS 

Detailed  descriptions  on  request. 


AERONAUTICS 

BURLS,  G.  A, 

Aero  Engines $3 .  50 

DIXIE,  A.  E. 

Air  Navigation  for  Flight  Officers  .....  4.00 
DOMMETT,  W.  E. 

Aeroplanes  and  Airships 80 

DUCHENE,  COMMANDANT 

night  Without  Formulae        2.50 

DUCHENE,  COMMANDANT 

The  Mechanics  of  the  Aeroplane 2 .  50 

EIFFEL,  G.  {translated  by  J.  C.  HUNSACKER) 

Resistance  of  Air  and  Aviation    .....     .  10 .  00 

FACE,   A. 

The  Aeroplane 2 .  50 

GRAHAM-WHITE,  C,  and  HARPER,  II. 

Learning  to  Fly 75 

GREENHILL,   G. 

Dynamics  of  Mechanical  Flight 2 .  50 

HAY  WARD,  CHAS.  B. 

Building  and  Flying  an  Aeroplane 1 .  00 

JUDGE,  A.  W. 

Design  cf  Aeroplanes 4.50 


KENNEDY,   R. 

Fljring  Machines •  Practice  and  Design     .     .     .    $2.00 

KENNEDY,  R. 

Aeroplane  Construction     . 1.50 

LANCHESTER,   F.    W. 

Flying  Machines  from  an  Engineering  Standpoint     3 .  00 

LANCHESTER,   F.    W. 

Aerial  Flight,  2  vols. 

Vol.  I  — Aerodynamics 6.00 

Vol.  II— Aerodonetics 6.00 

LANCHESTER,  F.   W. 

Aircraft  in  War 4.00 

LOENING,   G.   C. 

Military  Aeroplanes 4.75 

MATTHEWS,  R.  B. 

Aviation  Pocket  Book  for  1917 1 .  50 

PAGE,  VICTOR  W. 

Aviation  Chart ;  Power  Plant  Troubles  Made  Easy      .  50 

Aviation  Engines ;  Design,  Construction,  Repair  .     3.00 

Glossary    of    Aviation    Terms;    English-French. 

Franc  ais- Anglais 1.00 

PIERCE,  R.  M. 

Dictionary  of  Aviation 1 .  60 

ROBSON,    WILLIAM  A. 

Aircraft  in  War  and  Peace       .  .     .  .     .      1 .  00 

SPAIGHT,   J.   M. 

Aircraft  in  War 2.00 

TALBOT,   F.   A. 

Aeroplanes  and  Dirigibles  of  War 1 .  25 

WIDMER,  E.  J. 

Military  Observation  Balloons 3 .  00 

WOODHOUSE,  H. 

Textbook  of  Military  Aeronautics 6.00 


ARTILLERY,  COAST  AND  FIELD 

Gunnery  and  Explosives  for  Field  Artillery  Officers       .  40 

HAMMOND,  J.  S.  and  OLMSTEAD  D. 
Gunner's  Handbook  for  Field  Artillery      ...         .60 
Manufacture  of  Artillery  Ammunition      ,     .     .      6.00 


Shrapnel  and  Other  War  Material $1 .  50 

Coast  Artillery  Drill  Regulations 1 .  00 

Provisional  Drill  and  Service  Regulations  for  Field 

Artillery  (Horse  and  Light)         1 .  25 

Provisional  Drill  and  Service  Regulations  for  Field 

Artillery  (6  Inch  Hov^ritzer),  1917     ....       1.25 
BETHELL,   H.   A. 

Modern  Guns  and  Gunnery 6 .  00 

BISHOP,   H.   G, 

Elements  of  Modern  Field  Artillery  .     .     .       1 .  50 

BISHOP,  H.  G. 

Operation  Orders,  Field  Artillery 1.00 

CLOKE,  H.  E. 

Gunner's  Examiner 1.50 

DYER,  A.  B. 

Handbook  of  Light  Artillery 3 .  00 

EISSLER,  M. 

Modern  High  Explosives 4 .  00 

GRUBER,  E.  L. 

Notes  on  3-inch  Gun  Material 50 

GUTTMAN,  OSCAR 

The  Manufacture  of  Explosives.    2  vols.     .  11 .  00 

INGALLS,  J.   M, 

Interior  Ballistics 3 .  00 

LISSAK,   O.   M. 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery G .  00 

MacALISTER,  D.  A. 

Field  Gunnery 1.00 

MARSHALL,  A. 

Explosives.    2  vols 16.00 

MORETTI,  O.  and  DANFORD,  R.  M. 

Notes  on  Training  Field  Artillery  Details  .  2 .  00 

OMMUNDSEN,  H.,  and  ROBINSON,  E.  H. 

Rifles  and  Ammunition     ........       6.00 

RUGGLES,  C.  L. 

Stresses  in  Wire  Wrapped  Guns  and  in  Gun 

Carriages 3.00 

SANFORD,   P.    G. 

Nitro-Explosives 4.00 

SPAULDING,    CAPT.   OLIVER  L. 

Notes  on  Field  Artillery     ........      1.25 


WEAVER,   E.   M. 

Notes  on  Military  Explosives  .......     $3 .  00 

WISE,   T.   C. 

Gunnery;   an  Elementary  Treatise 3.00 

WORDEN,  E.  C. 

Nitro-cellulose  Industry.    2  vols 10.00 

FIELD    ENGINEERING 

Engineer's  Field  Manual 1.26 

ARMY  SERVICE  SCHOOLS 

Notes  on  Field  Fortifications 50 

BEACH,    CAPT.    WM.   D. 

Manual  of  Military  Field  Engineering.    9th  Ed. 

Revised.    Cloth 1.76 

BOND,  P.  S. 

Engineer  in  War 1.60 

FIEBEGER,    G.   J. 

Textbook  of  Field  Fortifications 2.00 

KENYON,  R.  E. 

Land  and  Coast  Fortification 2.00 

ROBINSON,    ERNEST   F. 

Military  Preparedness  and  the  Engineer  .  .  .  1.50 
SOLANO,  E.  J. 

Field  Entrenchments ;  Spadework  for  Riflemen  .  1 .  00 
VICKERS,  L. 

Training  for  the  Trenches 1 .  00 

WALDRON,  W.  H. 

Elements  of  Trench  Warfare 76 

HYGIENE  AND   SANITATION 

Drill  Regulations  and  Service  Manual  for  Sanitary 

Troops 75 

Manual  for  the  Medical  Department,  U.  S.  Army      1.10 

ASH  BURN,   P.   M. 
Elements  of  Military  Hygiene      .     o     .     .     .     .       1.50 

HASTINGS,  S. 
First  Aid  for  the  Trenches 1.00 


HAVARD,  V. 

Military  Hygiene $5 .  00 

KEEPER,  F.  R. 

Military  Hygiene 1 .  50 

LELEAN,  P.  S. 

Sanitation  in  War 2.00 

MUNSON,  LIEUT.  COL.  EDW.  L. 

The  Principles  of  Sanitary  Tactics 2 .  00 

MUNSON,  E.  L. 

Soldier's  Foot  and  Military  Shoe 1.36 

STRAUB,  PAUL  F., 

Medical  Service  in  Campaign 1 .  50 

WOOD,  R.  C. 

The  Soldier's  First  Aid 50 

WOODHULL,  A.  A. 

Military  Hygiene  for  officers  of  the  Line    .     .     .      1 .  50 


LANGUAGES 

Rapid-fire  English-French- German  for  Soldiers  .         .25 

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Operation  and  Tactical  Use  of  the 

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5cc^le  for  Paces 


-MILITARY  SKETCHING  AND  MAP  READING 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  Publishers 

NEW  YORK 


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Fig.  2D. 
!ARNES-MILIT.\RY  SKETCHING  AND  ^r.-P  READING 
D.  Van  Nostr.\sd  Company,  Publishers 


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Fig.  2C. 
B.\RNES-MILITARY  SKETCHING  AND  MAP  READING 
D.  Van  Nostkakd  Company,  Publishers 
NEW  YORK 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  583  176     3 


